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JVledieval and JVlodern 
rlistory 



ITS FORMATIVE CAUSES 
AND BROAD MOVEMENTS 



BY 



J. A. Dewe, A.M. 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE COLLEGE OF ST. THOMAS 
ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA, U. S. A. 



WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE, Publishers 
31-33-35 West Fifteenth Street, New York City 



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UBHARY of CONGRESS 

Two Codes Recetved 

SEP 3 »90^ 

CopynftH Btrtry 

CUS% ^TfjL, L, 

COPY a. 



Copyright, 1907 
By HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE 



PREFACE. 

Every text-book, and especially a text-book of Medieval and 
Modern History, should have some individuality of its own to 
which it is important at the outset to call the reader's atten- 
tion. 

It was once remarked by Lord Acton that a student of his- 
tory should direct his attention to the discovery of fundamental 
causes and of general laws, and not merely to the phenomena 
of events or even a series of events. This suggestion has been 
followed by the writer of the present treatise. He has not 
confined his narrative to the movements of armies or to the 
sequence of political events; it has been his purpose rather to 
impart a sound knowledge of the nature of institutions and 
of the economic, social, and religious causes of historical events. 
He has also attempted to give clear ideas of the broad move- 
ments of history and of the relations of such movements. By 
this means the writer has hoped to make the study of history 
as truly scientific as are the subjects of chemistry or astron- 
omy, in which all phenomena are constantly traced to certain 
general laws. 

Closely connected with this treatment of the subject matter 
of history is the importance attached to the inter-action of 
Church and State, which is here so often insisted upon that it 
has been thought proper to place at the end of the book a list 
of all those sections which deal with this relation of ecclesiasti- 
cal and political elements. 

It is hoped by this means to enable the student more fully 
to comprehend the existing ecclesiastical and secular institu- 
tions, and to mak'e him better able to use his knowledge of 
the past so as to interpret the present and to forecast the future. 

These purposes can be accomplished only when the student 



PREFACE 

sees that all events', however un-related by time and place, are 
brought into harmonious relation by constant and universal 
laws. 

Special attention has been given to the treatment of English 
history. It is of the highest importance that Americans 
should become familiar with the main facts in the history of 
the English people, especially of the growth of their consti- 
tution and laws, which explain so much that is to be found in 
the Constitution and custom of the Republic of the United 
States. The usual practice of introducing large splashes of 
English history into the middle of chapters in a work on gen- 
eral history, is a great hindrance to logical continuity. This 
difficulty has been obviated by placing at the end of certain 
chapters sections dealing entirely with English history. 

Finally the author frankly acknowledges that he has given 
a fuller consideration to the affairs of the Church and its re- 
lations to the State than is to be found in most histories of 
the medieval period. This has been done advisedly. Church 
and State were the two chief inter-acting forces of the Middle 
Ages and their history serves to explain in large part the pres- 
ent political and social condition of the nations in Europe. It 
is believed that this very feature will make the book highly 
acceptable to many institutions of learning and of great value 
to the sfcneral reader. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Introduction. The Dawn of Medieval History .... i 

II. Tile Barbarian Invasions 12 

III. Great Leaders of the Middle Ages 21 

IV. The Saracens . 38 

V. Carolingian Dynasty 51 

VI. Carolingian Dynasty (concluded) 63 

VII. Feudalism and Monasticism 72 

VIII. Parallel Development of France and Germany .... 83 

IX. Saxon Kings 91 

X. Salian Emperors and Investiture Contest loi 

XI. Continuation of Contest Between Empire and Papacy . . 114 

XII. Important Movements of the Middle Ages 134 

XIII. Development of France 165 

XIV. The Hundred Years' War 183 

XV. The Renaissance 206 

XVI. Review of the Leading States of Europe 229 

XVII. Character of the Modern Period 260 

XVIII. Italy the Center of Foreign Politics 269 

XIX. Rivalry Between Francis I and Charles V 279 

XX. The Reformation ; 289 

XXI. Catholic Reformation 310 

XXII. Revolt of the Netherlands 321 

XXIII. Thirty Years' War^ 331 

XXIV. France Previous to the Reign of Louis XIV .... 346 
XXV. Age of Louis XIV 364 

XXVI. War of the Austrian Succession 385 

XXVII. Seven Years' War and Colonial Expansion of England . 394 

XXVIII. Rise of Russia and Partition of Poland 403 

XXIX. The French Revolution 412 

XXX. Napoleon Bonaparte 436 

XXXI. Unification of Germany and Italy 450 

XXXII. Progress of England 465 

XXXIII. Developments and Progress of the Leading States of 

Europe 476 

XXXIV. Some Typical Features of the XIX Century .... 496 



MEDIEVAL 
AND MODERN HISTORY 

CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 

THE DAWN OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

1. Condition of the Roman Empire. — From the first cen- 
tury of the Christian era down to the middle of the third, 
Roman power and civiHzation had diffused peace and pros- 
perity through the civilized world. Rome, under the unifying 
authority of her emperors, had been increasing outwardly and 
strengthening herself within. The provinces that had been 
conquered by the Roman republic were united to the imperial 
city by the powerful ties of a just and sympathetic adminis- 
tration. The provincial governors, w^ho, by their tyranny and 
extortion, had alienated the inhabitants of the provinces, were 
degraded from the power that they had so much abused. Un- 
der the direct personal control of the emperor, taxes were 
quickly lessened and the people rejoiced in their political privi- 
leges and rising material prosperity. 

2. Extent of the Roman Empire. — The Roman empire 
had also gained in extension. The conquest of Gaul had 
been fully completed, and under the emperor Claudian and 
his succes.sors England also had been brought under Roman 
rule. From the borders of Persia in the east to the w^hite 
shores of England in the west, and from the German forests 

I 



2 INTRODUCTION 

in the north to the plains of Africa in the south, the eagles 
of the Roman standard floated peacefully and powerfully. 
Roman civilization, Roman literature, and above all, Roman 
law with all its justice and majesty, reigned everywhere su- 
preme. 

3. The German Frontier. — There were, however, two 
frontiers beyond which the power of Rome had failed to es- 
tablish itself. Between the Rhine and the Elbe were the Ger- 
mans — wild, fierce, and barbarous, but, as we gather from 
the commentaries of Caesar, possessing some rudimentary no- 
tions of government and order. They retained all the bodily 
strength and physical prowess of barbarism, and in their 
sovereign assemblies of the people, we see the germs of the 
highest type of civilized government. In vain had the trained 
Roman soldiers, under skilled officers, crossed the Rhine and 
even established military outposts and forts in the heart of 
the enemy's country. They had never succeeded in main- 
taining their position, and before the end of the reign of 
Tiberius it was recognized that the Rhine was a natural and 
an unyielding frontier. 

4. The Eastern Frontier. — There was also in the east a 
frontier which had been a successful barrier to the march of 
Roman power. Already, in the time of Csesar, the Romans 
under Crassus, had received a severe defeat at the hands of 
the Parthians, and the combined forces of Roman arms and 
Roman diplomacy had failed to efifect the conquest of the 
Parthian empire or to influence its civilization. 

Danger therefore threatened the Roman power both on the 
east from the Parthians and on the north from the Germans. 
But the greater peril was from the Germans who were in all 
the vigor of a new and rising civilization, and whose natural 
restlessness was increased by over-population and the pressure 
of other wild tribes to the eastward. 



ROMAN DECAY 3 

5. Decay of the old Roman Character. — Rome might still 
have survived these perils, had there not been at work other 
disintegrating forces — forces invisible indeed, but on that 
account the more insidious and destructive. 

The real strength of a nation lies not in its armies, but in 
the virtue and fortitude of its citizens. Mars, who had been 
from time immemorial the favorite god of the Roman people, 
was the deity presiding over war and agriculture, and the cor- 
responding typical virtues of the early Roman were the stern 
fortitude of the soldier, and the simplicity of the shep- 
herd. The result was a type of character distinguished by 
that honest manliness which places its constant trust in the 
" truth that prevails." But this character was fast being un- 
dermined. How far the introduction of Greek civilization, 
then in its decadence, was responsible for this, it is hard to say. 
The actual causes of Roman decadence seem to have arisen 
from within. The education of the Roman youth was no 
longer what it had been. The severe, almost unlimited 
authority of the father over the child had been relaxed partly 
by law, partly by custom. The family was no longer the 
training-school of the virtues of fortitude and respect for 
authority. The foundations of self-reliance and vigorous 
initiative were removed, and, on the other hand, the manifold 
temptations of an advanced and luxurious civilization were 
multiplying. Consequent upon this was the decay of disci- 
pline in the Roman army. The family was the recruiting 
ground of the state, and the defects of the one soon became 
the defects of the other. So unruly had the Roman legions 
become, that they made and unmade even the emperors them- 
selves. 

6. Political Decay. — In addition to these social causes of 
decay, there were others of a political character. 

The Roman empire was not only large and unwieldy, but 



4 LyTRODLCTlON 

it embraced many peoples, of different racial characteristics. 
It is admitted in our times that the influences of physical en- 
vironment have done much to make th^ English, the French, 
the Germans, and the other modern European nations what 
they actually are; the sajne forces must certainly have been 
at work in the Roman empire exerting a strong disintegrat- 
ing influence. Moreover, the constitutional machinery at 
home was inadequate to deal with the new problems constantly 
arising in ever>- part of the empire. Even if there had been 
a network of telegraph lines connecting the ruling emperor 
with his far oft' subjects, the task of government would have 
been ditticult. Xor could a hierarchy of officials cope with the 
difticulty, where the material distance between the members 
of the hierarchy was so great. One link, indeed, there had 
been between the emperor and the lowest of his subjects, and 
that was the worship of the divinity of the emperor. Odious. 
indeed, must have been the personality of such a tyrant as 
Xero. yet when he walked from his palace into the temple of 
Castor and Pollux and stood between the statues of the twin 
gods, the human element, for the time being, was swallowed 
up in belief that he was the descendant of the gods, and that 
after death he himself would be deified. The religious element 
which sanctioned the payment of divine homage to the 
emperor, contributed for a considerable length of time to im- 
perial prestige and influence. But various causes w ere now 
undermining the sacred element, the authority of the emperor. 
F'aith in the old pagan gods was fast declining. Jupiter. 
Mars. Mercury, and other familiar names no longer repre- 
sented veritable deities, but rather abstract entities or empty 
philosophical conceptions exening no active influence on the 
minds of the people. With the decay of religious belief, came 
also the decay of imperial prestige. 

It was evident that the Roman Empire must soon either 
undergo some radical alteration, or cease to exist. 



DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE 5 

7. Imperial Succession. — The danger was brought to a 
head by the want of any recognized rule of imperial succession. 
Constitutionally, the office of emperor was elective, not heredi- 
tary. The election was theoretically in the hands of the 
Roman people, but practically it was in the hands of the sol- 
diers, and the subject of their choice was either some favorite 
general, or some one who had endeared himself to them by the 
length of his purse. At every new succession there arose dis- 
turbances and seditions. 

8. Division of the Empire. — But in the year 284 a re- 
forming emperor appeared, who strove not only to cope with 
the immediate evil, but also to organize the empire on a new 
and more durable basis. The plan of Diocletian was to give 
strength to the imperial organization by a process of division. 
There were to be two emperors instead of one — to be called 
Augusti ; and thus the name, Augustus, became a title of 
office and not, as formerly, a title of honor. These two em- 
perors had separate spheres of jurisdiction, one presiding over 
the eastern, the other over the western part of the empire ; a 
division suggested mainly by geographical conditions. Dis- 
putes regarding succession were to be avoided, by authoriz- 
ing each emperor to choose an assistant called a Csesar, who 
was to have the natural right of succession. 

9. Prefectures and Dioceses. — This process of division 
was carried into still further detail. The whole empire was 
divided into four prefectures, ruled over by their respective 
prefects. First, the prefecture of Gaul, including England, 
ruled by a resident prefect at Treves ; second, the prefecture of 
the east, including Syria and Egy^pt ; third, the prefecture of 
lUyria; and fourth, the prefecture of Italy, which included 
northeastern Africa and the Islands. These four prefectures 
were subdivided into dioceses, and these again into provinces, 



6 INTRODUCTION 

which were now more numerous and smaller, than the prov- 
inces tliat had previously existed. The names province and 
diocese are familiar to most people as names of ecclesiastical 
di\-isions. and it is interesting to note that these names were 
first used by Diocletian in designating the dilterent units of 
civil administration, and that they were afterwards incor- 
porated into the ecclesiastical system by the Church. 

There have been writers who have attributed to this process 
of division the dissolution of the Roman empire. But the 
exnls which had to be overcome were overwhelming, and there 
can be no doubt that a hierarchy of officials, bound by ties of 
fidelity to a central ruler, was the best form of government 
that could have been devised at the time. 

Moreover, it was clearly an attempt to render the centraliz- 
ing influence of the imperial authority as powerful as possible. 
Local liberty and local govenmient were curtailed, and the 
emperor, at the head of a vast body of officials, conducted the 
administration of all. The goveniment was in fact bureau- 
cratic. It was like the government of Louis XI\' in France, 
or like that of the emperor of Russia at the present day. ad- 
ministered by officials who carried out a vexatious and minute 
system of taxation, and who often interfered with local tra- 
ilitions and private affairs. This system, with its economic 
evils, tended to defeat the attempts of the emperor at re- 
fonn. 

10. Diocletian's Policy Towards the Christians. — Diocle- 
tian made a mistake in his policy toward the Christians. 
They had become a power throughout the empire. It is true 
that Christianity had been a prohibited religion from the time 
of Domitian: yet the attitude of the emperors had been gen- 
erally that of passive opposition, while Hadrian and Antoni- 
nus had even tolerated the Christians. \Miat persecution 
there had been was local in its effect, and arose from a cer- 



THE EMPEROR CONSTANTINE 7 

tain vaj^ue class prejudice. By the time of Diocletian, 
Christianity had assumed an importance that seemed to de- 
mand some definite policy on the part of the state. The 
settled purpose of Diocletian was to restore the imperial pres- 
tige. But the doctrines of the Christians militated against 
the belief in the divinity of the emperor, which had contrib- 
uted so much to establish this imperial prestige. The result 
was the Diocletian persecutions, which were pursued with a 
systematic and relentless ferocity unparalleled in the history of 
the Church. The persecution, however, failed in its purpose. 

11. The Emperor Constantine. — Among the first to rec- 
ognize the futility of seeking to exterminate a large body of 
men scattered over so large an area and constantly multi- 
plying by fresh conversions, was Constantine, who ascended 
the imperial throne in 307 A. D. This date is memorable, not 
only for the emperor's recognition of Christianity, but also for 
his further attempts to keep together an empire on the verge of 
disssolution. He saw that the Christian religion was too wide- 
spread, endowed with too much vitality, to be crushed, while, 
on the other hand, it might serve as a new and enduring link 
between the scattered portions of the empire. Moreover, his 
own conversion to the Christian faith dictated a policy not 
only of toleration, but of practical support. 

12. Establishment of Christianity. — The most conspicu- 
ous feature perhaps of the reign of Constantine was the out- 
ward and visible progress of the Church, which was directly 
attributable to his fostering care. He compensated as far as 
possible all who had been persecuted on account of their 
Christianity. He gave the sanction of the law to all manu- 
missions of slaves made in the churches. He released the 
Christian clergy from certain odious political duties, and the 
Christian churches from the payment of taxes. The new 



8 INTRODUCTION 

city of Constantinople, which was called after him, was dedi- 
cated to the Virgin. And the crowning triumph of his ortho- 
doxy was the first universal council of Nicea, held under 
his special auspices. This council set forth the principal 
tenets of the Christian faith, and condemned the theory of 
Arianism. 

Though this policy of assimilating instead of seeking to 
destroy the Christian religion, was thus opposed to the policy 
of Diocletian, yet it was certainly directed toward accom- 
plishing the ulterior end of that policy. 

13. Change of the Imperial Residence. — The republican 
atmosphere of Rome was hardly suited to an emperor with 
ideas of a strong, central government. About the year 328 
he began to build a new town on the site of the old Greek 
town of Byzantium. There he could be far removed from 
the trammelling traditions of the dual system of govern- 
ment instituted by Augustus, in which the senate was sup- 
posed to be a partjier with the emperor. Apart, from these 
considerations, the new capital was in a position of great 
natural strength, and from it the emperor could strike more 
easily at his enemies, the Persians in the east, and the Goths 
in the north. 

14. Magnificence of Constantinople. — The new city soon 
began to rival the old in the size and splendor of its new 
buildings. It soon became the center of a new style of 
architecture, called Byzantine — a style which was prevalent 
in Italy up to the fifteenth century, and survives still in 
Russian architecture. Its chief features are the round arch, 
the circle and the cross, the various ornamental shapes of 
the capitals of the pillars, the abundance of large spaces with 
mere surface ornament, and the combined use of rough stone 
work with more precious materials. The most conspicuous 



IMPERIAL POWER 



examples of this style are the Church of Santa Sophia, erected 
by Justinian in Constantinople itself, and the Church of St. 
Mark's in Venice. 



15. Display of Imperial Power. — But the material beauty 
of the new city and its imposing magnificence were but a re- 
flection of the moral and social splendor that Constantine 




The Catlicdral of St. .Mark 111 \"enice. I'irst built in 813; destroyed by fire in 976 
and rebuilt in 1071. The main edifice is Byzantine, but Gothic additions were 
made in the 14th century- and Renaissance alterations in the 17th century. TSie 
material is brick encrusted with delicately colored marbles richly carved. 

introduced into his new court. The senate that he formed 
and the two consuls were such only in name, and were mere 
appendages of imperial dignity. The emperor w^as the sole, 
supreme lord and master; his wish was law, and all other 
dignity or importance was derived only from personal con- 
tact with him, and from personal service duly rendered. In 
this as in other matters, with the exception of his attitude 
towards the Christians, he was carrying out the policy of 



lO INTRODUCTION 

Diocletian. The process of division was still further de- 
veloped, and he decreed that after his death, the empire should 
be divided among his three sons. 

1 6. Failure of Imperial Power. — AH the efforts, however, 
both of pagan Diocletian and Christian Constantine were 
fruitless. The Roman empire was too vast. The problem 
of governing such widely scattered people of different races 
and provincial characteristics was too much for any policy. 
Even if some constitution had been constructed suitable in 
theory, the Roman people had already lost those virtues that 
had given to Rome the reins of power and dominion. 

And while the Roman empire was becoming internally 
weaker every day, it was from without subject to violent 
attacks. In the north there were the German tribes, a 
people young and vigorous in body and in spirit; and dur- 
ing the third and fourth centuries these German tribes, whom 
Caesar and succeeding emperors had failed to subdue, poured 
down upon the Roman Empire. They did not, however, 
wholly destroy it, but united their rough tribal traditions of 
liberty and justice to all that was best in the Rome of the 
past. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

General condition of the Roman Empire in the third century 
— Extent of the Roman Empire — Decay of the Roman Empire 
arising from moral, political and religious causes — Reforms of 
Diocletian and his persecution of the Christians — Reforms of 
Constantine and his patronage of the Christians — Constanti- 
nople ; Byzantine architecture — Failure of imperial attempts to 
maintain the empire. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

DuRUY, Middle Ages; Robinson, Readings in European History; Dill, 
Roman Society to the last of the Western Empire; Bury, Later Roman 
Empire; West, Ancient History to the Death of Charlemagne ; Gibbon, 
Decline and Fall of the Roman Emprie; Crevier, Histoire des Empereurs, 



GENERAL REFERENCE 1 1 

Romains depuis Auguste a Constantin; Morey, Roman Laiv; Hodgkin, 
Tlicodosius; Jones, Civilization During the Middle Ages; Adams, Civil- 
ization During the Middle Ages; Montesquieu, Considerations sur Ics 
Causes de la Grandeur des Romains ct de leur decadence; Bryce, Holy 
Roman Empire; Hodgkin, Theodoric ; Oman, Dark Ages; Alzog, 
Church History; Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire. 



CHAPTER II 

THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 

17. The German Invaders. — The German tribes who be- 
gan to move in the direction of the Roman Empire occupied 
Scandinavia and the land that Hes between the Rhine on the 
west, the Vistula on the east, the Baltic on the north, and 
the Danube on the south. 

The Germans were divided into three great branches. 
First, the Northern Germans, who were afterwards known 
as Northmen and later as Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes; 
second, the West Germans, who included the Franks and 
Saxons, and third, the East Germans, who were further sub- 
divided into Goths and Vandals. 

18. Character of the Germans. — Tacitus, a Roman writer 
who died about 115 A. D., gives a graphic description of the 
manners, customs, and political constitution of the West Ger- 
mans. He says that in personal appearance they were re- 
markable for their size, red hair, and general ferocity of as- 
pect. From him we also gather that their chief occupations 
were cattle-raising, agriculture, hunting, and war. Like 
the peasants in the Russian villages of to-day. they held their 
land in common, making a redistribution of it every year. 
They paid great reverence to the priest, who was very often 
the father of the family, and whose permission was required 
before anyone could be punished. Though they were ad- 
dicted to drinking and gambling, they showed a strong sense 
of justice and truthfulness, and the followers of the chiefs 
were remarkable for their courage and devotion to their lead- 
ers. 

12 



THE GERMAN TRIBES 1 3 

19. Government of the German Tribes. — Even among 
these barbarous and idolatrous peoples might be seen the 
germs of most of our modern governments. They had 
kings who were sometimes chosen from particular families, 
but who, owing to the limitation of their authority by the 
popular will, w^ere the representatives of the tribes rather 
than its rulers. The practical and legislative work of gov- 
ernment seems to have been carried on mainly by assem- 
blies. The most important business was dealt with by the 
assembly of all the fighting men of the tribe, while things 
of lesser moment were discussed by the assembly of the 
chiefs. Even in the smaller units of local government it 
was the assembly of the people that held the reins of 
power. 

This description given by Tacitus of the West Germans 
might be fairly applied to all Germans. For the different 
tribes of the Saxons, Franks, Goths, Vandals, and the others 
did not live absolutely separate from one another. Though, 
very often wars broke out between them, the tribes, as 3. 
general rule, tended to mingle together and unite, rather than 
to separate. 

20. Movements of the German Tribes. — The first tribes 
to come in contact with the Roman Empire were the Goths. 
Already in 10 1 B. C. they had assumed a threatening atti- 
tude, but were beaten by the Roman general Marius at the 
battle of Vercellae ; nor did their restlessness afterwards seem 
to have caused much alarm in Rome. By 150 A. D. the 
Goths had migrated to the south, as far as the Black Sea 
and the lower course of the Danube. There they divided 
into two branches, known as the East and the West Goths. 
It was at this time that the German and the Roman seem to 
have come into close communication. Gothic slaves were 
kept in many Roman households and were admitted into po- 



14 THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 

sitions of -civil and military importance. Colonies of Goths 
were invited to settle in the Imperial provinces of Italy in 
order to replenish the diminishing population, and some seem 
to have received grants of land on condition of military serv- 
ice. With each successive victory of the Romans over the 
Goths, the number of these colonies seems to have increased, 
and they soon assumed a permanent character of some im- 
portance, the chief of the colony deeming himself a Roman, 
and controlling the financial and judicial business of the 
colony. 

21. Roman Influence Upon the Germans, — But if the 

Gothic element filtered into Italy, it is equally true that Ro- 
man elements of civilization penetrated into the interior of 
the lands occupied by the Goths. Roman travelers, Roman 
exiles, and Roman merchants spread everywhere the knowl- 
edge of Roman customs and usages; and what was still more 
important, Roman missionaries introduced among the Goths 
the knowledge of the Christian faith. But not all the Goths 
became Catholic Christians. Many of them were Arians ; 
that is to say, they believed that the Second Person of the 
Holy Trinity was made by the Father, and that He was in- 
ferior to and dependent upon the Father. 

From the Visigoths, Arianism soon spread to other Ger- 
man tribes, such as the Ostrogoths, Burgundians, and 
Vandals. This was mainly owing to the energy of the 
Arian emperor, Valens, and even when an orthodox emperor, 
Theodosius, afterwards commanded them to accept the Ni- 
cene Creed, they refused for political reasons. 

22. Invasion of the Visigoths. — About the year 395, the 
Visigoths again became very restless. A considerable 
number of them, under a leader called Alaric, cherished the 
idea of a national independence. They were discontented 



INVASION OF THE VISIGOTHS 15 

with the arrangement by which the Roman emperor had 
allowed them to settle on the land south of the Danube, 
without being" pei-mitted to have kings of their own. In 395 
Alaric became their king and this was the signal for revolt. 
They marched to Constantinople, which they failed to take, and 
then went through Thrace and Macedonia to Greece. When 
they had reached Corinth, the emperor sent against them 
Stilicho, the son of a Vandal chief. No battle took place 
and a compromise was reached whereby the Visigoths were 
allowed to settle in Illyria. Even Illyria, however, was un- 
suited to the development of their national independence, and 
under Alaric they invaded Italy in 401. Again Stilicho was 
sent against the enemy, and an indecisive ba^itle was fought at 
Pollentia, in North Italy. In 408, Alaric, in combination 
with another very able leader, Athaulf, renewed the invasion 
of Italy, and about two years afterwards, the city of Rome 
was betrayed by the treachery of some Gothic slaves into the 
hands of Alaric. ]\Iuch has been said regarding" the vio- 
lence and cruelty of the Goths on this occasion, but contem- 
porary writers deny that so much fury was shown by the 
Goths. One writer says that great respect was shown to the 
churches in Rome, and that the Goths even went in pro- 
cession to St. Peter's. 

23. The Visigoths leave Italy.— The occupation of Italy 
by the Visigoths did. not last long. A few years after the 
death of Alaric, they migrated to Spain, which had been 
already appropriated by the Vandals and the Suevi. The 
Visigoths found it convenient to make an active alliance 
with the Roman emperor, and waged war upon the Vandals 
and Suevi with such gratifying success that in 415 the em- 
peror allowed the Visigoths a district in the south of France, 
while in 466 Spain was formed into a Visigothic kingdom 
under Euric. 



1 6 THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 

24. The Vandals, who had been driven out of Spain, 
crossed into Africa, and wherever they went, spread havoc 
and desolation. They numbered between fifty and eighty 
thousand, and under Genseric, their king, persecuted the 
Church with even greater ferocity than Diocletian. Con- 
temporary historians, however, attest the firmness and con- 
stancy of many of the faithful during those trying years. 
Many faithful Christians must have been consoled during 
that trying period by the exhortations of St. Augustine, 
who in his book entitled " The City of God, " while dwelling 
upon the confusion and horror of those troublous times, ex- 
horts his fellow-Christians to lift up their eyes to the Eternal 
City of God, whither they were hastening, and where alone 
they could enjoy true peace and tranquility. 

25. Odoacer in Italy. — We have seen that the Vandals 
were driven out of Spain by the Visigoths, who had just mi- 
grated from Italy. Though the Visigoths so soon abandoned 
their conquests, the Romans were not long left in peace. The 
place of the Visigoths was taken by the barbarian merce- 
naries, belonging to different tribes. The leader of these 
fierce and rude soldiers was Odoacer, himself a German, 
though it is not known to what particular tribe he belonged. 
At that time, the emperor of the West was a mere boy 
of the name of Romulus Augustulus; he was unable to 
oppose any resistance to Odoacer, and was compelled to 
appear before the senate and resign. From the Ro- 
man point of view, however, this did not mean the distruc- 
tion of the Western Empire; if anything it meant the re- 
storation of its unity under the emperor of the East, 
who was then Zeno, reigning at Constantinople. Odoacer 
recognized the supremacy of Zeno, and through the Roman 
senate, begged for the honorary title of " Patricius," and to 
be invested with the government of Italy in the Emperor's 



THE HUNS 17 

name. The request was neither granted nor refused. 
Odoacer assumed the title himself, and under his assumed 
administration peace and order were partially restored to 
Italy. But the success of Odoacer was not permanent. He 
and his barbarian mercenaries in 488 were attacked by the 
Ostrogoths under Theodoric, the ablest of all the Gothic rul- 
ers. Theodoric gave out that he was acting under a com- 
mission of the emperor Zeno, invaded Italy, defeated Odoacer 
at the battle of Verona, and with the help of the orthodox 
bishops, made himself supreme in northern Italy. In 493, 
during the celebration of the treaty of peace, Theodoric 
caused Odoacer to be basely murdered, and was thus enabled 
to take possession of all Italy, which remained in the hands of 
the Ostrogoths for nearly ninety years. 

26. Invasion of the Huns. — The movement of the Visi- 
goths into Italy and their migration into Spain and Southern 
Gaul, the devastation of Africa by the Vandals, and the long 
occupation of Italy by the Ostrogoths, were the three con- 
spicuous events in connection with the movements of the 
Gothic tribes. But during these migrations there took place 
an invasion of a new and outside character. Between 444 
and 450, the Huns under Attila invaded Europe. 

The Huns were Mongolians — of the same race as the 
Tartars and the Chinese, and a French historian of the 
middle of the nineteenth century succeeded in proving this 
fact by evidences drawn from Chinese sources. The Huns 
soon became, what they were afterwards called, " The Scourge 
of Europe. " These small, dark men, with big heads and 
flattened noses, feeding on raw flesh and absolutely without 
pity, filled both Roman and German with horror. The sav- 
age invaders soon reached Gaul, and at the battle of 
Chalons-sur-Marne (451) was decided the question whether 
the Aryan family was to retain its supremacy in Europe, or 



i8 



THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 



whether it should give way before the Mongohan invader. 
In that great battle, under Aetius the Roman, and Theodoric, 
the future king of the East Goths, the different families of 
the Aryan race met together and fought side by side against 
the common foe. Attila was beaten, and the wave of Tartar 
invasion rolled back to the lands of northern Italy. Verona, 
Mantua, and other cities were already destroyed. Many of 
the inhabitants of the mainland in their despair fled to the 




Pope Leo turning back Attila from Rome. 



islands of the delta of the river Po, and this gave origin to 
the City of Venice, which in future times, owing to its sub- 
sequent commercial prosperity, came to be called " Queen of 
the Adriatic." Attila then went to Milan and Pavia, which 
he treated with unusual clemency, and was soon on his way 
to Rome. But the savage warrior who feared no natural foe, 
feared the heroism of virtue and majesty of supernatural in- 
fluence. Already in Gaul he had been turned away from the 
city of Troyes by the awe-inspiring presence of Lupus, the 



RETREAT OF ATT 1 LA I9 

bishop of that city, and now on his way to Rome he was met 
by Pope Leo the First, who successfully warned him not to 
continue his journey to the " Eternal City." According to 
tradition, the admonitions of the saintly pontiff were intensi- 
fied by the apparition of the apostles St. Peter and St. Paul, 
who threatened the barbarian with instant death if he failed to 
comply. Attila, after signing the treaty, retired beyond 
the Danube and his death took place in 453. The in- 
vasion of the Huns was a mere episode in the history of 
Europe, and if we except the foundation of Venice, produced 
no lasting result. It certainly interfered very little with 
the remarkable process that was going on at that time 

— the blending together of the Roman and the German ele- 
ments. 

The best way of arriving at a clear idea of this process, and 
of giving some sort of unity to the very confused history 
of this period, is to examine the lives of the few typical men, 
who, each in his own way, represent all the important move- 
ments of those times. These are Theodoric the Great, Clovis 
in Gaul, Justinian in the Eastern Empire, and Pope Gregory 
the Great. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Position of German tribes — Character of the Germans and 
their political organization — Migrations of the German tribes 

— Communication between Roman and German civilization — 
Arianism among the Goths — Gothic invasion of Italy — The 
Visigoths leave Italy — The Vandals in Africa — Odoacer in 
Italy — Ostrogoths invade Italy — Invasion of the Huns — 
Four prominent types of this period. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Oman, The Dark Ages; Villari, The Barbarian Invasions of Italy; 
HoDGKiN, Theodoric ; Bury, The Later Roman Empire (a Glimpse of Hun 
Life) ; Priscus, E.vcerpta de Lcgalionibiis ; Geffrey, Augusti, Rome, et 
les Barbares; Orosius, Historiaruni, Lib. IL in Migne; Tacitus, Ger- 



20 THE BARBARIAN IM'ASIOXS 

mania; Ozanam, Etudes Gcnnaniques; Glmmere, Gcnnanic Origins; 
Des Gugnes, Histori dcs Huns; C.«sar, Gallic War. 



CHAPTER III 

GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

27. Character of Theodoric. — Theodoric after slaying 
Odoacer became master of Italy ; so important was his reign 
that its history is practically the history of the East Goths. 

In his own person he typified the blend of the German and 
of the Roman. He was a lover of German independence, 
and at the same time, a profound admirer of Roman civiliza- 
tion. It was the constant aim of his policy to bring together 
German vigor and Roman culture, to harmonize in one char- 
acter the best characteristics of both races. The breadth of 
his political views, the far-sightedness of his policy in the 
toleration of those whose opinions differed from his own, 
made him the most accomplished statesman of the times. 

28. Administration of Theodoric. — Theodoric fixed his 
imperial palace at Ravenna, and from there ruled his Gothic 

and Roman subjects. In the edict which he issued he settled 
the legal affairs of his Roman subjects, by applying the prin- 
ciples of Roman law. While, however, he was willing to up- 
hold the best elements of Roman civilization, he was careful 
to reserve the power of the sword for his own race, who thus 
lived as a military aristocracy in the midst of a conquered 
people. 

The administration of Theodoric gave to Italy a season of 
peace and prosperity. The clouds of foreign invasion and 
internal trouble that had so long darkened the land were 
dissolved, and Italy became once more a land of sunshine. In- 
dustry and commerce again flourished. The battered walls 
of Rome were repaired, the Via Appia, or, Appian Way, was 

21 



2.2 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

restored, and the marshes of the Campagna were drained. 
Every place bore witness to his activity. The restoration of 
old buildings and the construction of new ones, the re-opening 
of mines and the establishment of factories, and above all, the 
care with which he fostered the art of agriculture, showed 
his recognition of the importance of material and economic 
prosperity. 

29. Cassiodorus and Boethius. — Nor was he unmindful of 
the advancement of learning. Though he himself was unable 
to read, he became a patron of men of letters. Cassiodorus, 
his prime minister, was a man of letters and an historian. The 
most celebrated of the works of Cassiodorus are his history 
of the Goths in twelve books and his treatises on logic, gram- 
mar, music and astronomy. Among his religious works is 
an exposition of the Psalms. Another great man of letters 
patronized by Theodoric was Boethius, who as consul also de- 
voted a great part of his time to the service of the common- 
wealth. Boethius had studied eighteen years at Athens, ac- 
cjuainting himself with literature, philosophy, and mathe- 
matics. His writings were numerous and varied. Amongst 
them were commentaries upon Aristotle, and a treatise on 
music. His fame traveled so far that the king of the Bur- 
gundians visited Rome, not only to view the wonders of that 
city, but to talk with Boethius. 

30. Theodoric's Foreign Policy. — But the fame of Theo- 
doric as a patron of letters fades before the originality and 
vastness of his political genius. He not only conceived the 
idea of building up a Gothic Roman empire in an independent 
Italy, but he also tried to bring about a confederation of Ger- 
man states ; in fact he seems to have been the first to dream of 
a united Germany, a dream that was only realized in the time 
of Bismarck. One great instrument in the carrying out of 



22 



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FOLICV or- IHEODOklC 23 

this policy of Thtrxk/ric was to establish marriage rtl&tiom, 
tiCtween hirmelf and the different German trifles. Hi* %i*ter, 
for txurmyU:, was given in marriage to the king o£ the Bar- 
gundians, while his two '-'; . were married re»p'^ 

to the king of the West O ... i to the future kin^; , 

iJurgundians. Even the distant Franks in the Xorth were 
not left out, for he himself married the sister of Chlodowig, 
their chief, Xot content with this, h-: ":di- 

ator between warring German trit^es, r eir 

common origin and of the dttty of peace and mutual good will 

31. Theodoric's Attitude Towards Beligion, — The char- 
acter and ability, howe^*'er, of Theo<loric were not crowned 
with any final success. The great obstacle in the way of his 
pfAicy of unity was his rtligion, Theodoric was an Arian, 
while the bulk of his subjects in Italy were orthodox Cath- 
olics. At first he tried to conciliate those who differed from 
his own creefl, but the severe measures passed by the emperor 
Justin (S^3) ^^ ^^^ East against the Arians embittered his 
mind, and he retaliated by persecuting the orthodox Christians 
in Italy. 

On ascertaining that the emperor together with some 
memljers of the Roman senate was engaged in a conspiracy 
against him, he began to suspect e^/'en those who had been his 
most trusty confidents. Among these was Boethius, who was 
suspectefl of being one of the chief conspirators. Boethius 
was thrown into prison, and it was during his captivitj.' that 
he wrote the celebrated " Consolation of Philosophy," a work 
that was afterwards translated into Anglo-Saxon by King 
Alfred the Great. After t^^o years' captivit}.-, Boethius was 
put to death, and in the following year. Sv-mmachus. his 
father-in-law, shared the same fate. Theodoric himself died 
in 526, Not only w^ere his dreams of a united Germany 
dashed to the ground, but even the Ostrogothic empire in 



24 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Italy was swept away so completely that even the very name 
of Ostrogoth in Italy went into oblivion. 

32. Character of the Franks. — We now turn to another 
barbarian type, differing in intensity from that presented to 
us by Theodoric. The East Goths, owing to their close prox- 
imity to Rome, had quickly picked up the elements of Roman 
civilization, but the Franks in the North were more removed 
than other Germans from such humanizing influences. Of all 
the German tribes, the Franks were the most anti-Roman, and 
the most tenacious of all the good and bad qualities of un- 
adulterated barbarism. Their original home was in middle 
Germany, in a district called Franconia, situated between the 
Main and the Rhine, and from there they moved into Belgic 
Gaul in the northeast part of France. Though Belgic Gaul 
was in the possession of Rome, it was not so fully Roman- 
ized as the lower and more southern parts ; and thus the 
Franks, unlike the Goths, had not lost any of their barbaric 
beliefs and customs. They still clung to their pagan deities 
and still kept up their old habits of martial savagery. Occa- 
sionally, however, circumstances brought the Frank into touch 
with the other nations. On the battlefield of Chalons, when 
the scattered members of the great Aryan family united 
against the wave of Hunnish invasion, we hear of a Frankish 
king called Merovic, who fought under Aetius, and this 
Merovic became the mystic source of the Merovingian 
house. 

33. Conquests of Clovis. — It was in the reign of Clovis 
(481) that the Franks began to form a united nation, ambi- 
tious of territorial conquest, but their method of acquiring 
Roman territory differed considerably from the method 
adopted by the other German tribes. They did not give up 
their old homes like the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, and their 



CONVERSION OF THE FRANKS 25 

movements ought rather to be called expansion than mi- 
gration. 

In the year 486 Clovis defeated Syagrius, the Roman dele- 
gate of the Eastern emperor. The capital of the jurisdiction 
of Syagrius was at Soissons, about 100 miles north of Paris. 
The defeat of Syagrius enabled Clovis to extend his power as 
far south as the river Loire, and his marriage with Chlotilda, 
a Catholic princess of Burgundy, secured him the good will 
of the Burgundians. Clovis in 496 turned his arms against 
the tribe of the Alemanni, a German people living in the neigh- 
borhood of the Black Forest. At some place in Alsace (the 
precise locality is unknown) a decisive victory (496) gave the 
province of the Alemanni into the hands of Clovis. Its main 
importance consists in its being the indirect cause of the con- 
version of Clovis to the Catholic faith. When the issue of the 
battle was still uncertain, Clovis made a vow to become a 
Christian, if God would give him the victory. Clovis did not 
break his promise, and the consequences of his conversion 
were most momentous. 

34. Effects of the Conversion of the Franks. — The Franks 
were the only German tribes that, on leaving paganism, 
adopted the orthodox form of Christianity. It was no wonder 
that Pope Anastasius II rejoiced at the news and urged 
Clovis to be a loyal son of Holy Church. Soon between the 
Franks and the Pope an alliance was made of such an intimate 
character that it eventually lead to the foundation of the Holy 
Roman Empire. 

Clovis was instructed in the Christian faith by St. Remigius, 
bishop of Rheims, by whom he was also baptized on Christ- 
mas day, 496. He was then anointed and crowned king, the 
ceremonial for the occasion being borrowed partly from the 
liturgy supplied by the Book of Kings and partly from Byzan- 
tine sources. The first political fruits of this conversion were 



26 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

fresh conquests.. Clovis turned his eye to the lands south of 
the Loire and determined to wage war on the Arian Visigoths 
whom he regarded as heretics and enemies of the Church. 
Between 507 and 511 he drove the Visigoths to the other side 
of the Pyrenees; all the land that remained to them in Gaul 
being a small strip in the South. 

35. General Aspects of Clovis' Work. — The conquests of 
Clovis were more permanent than those of Theodoric, for 
there was no religious obstacle to prevent the blending of 
German and Roman elements. Though he does not seem to 
have had any definite policy, and though his achievements 
seem to have been suggested more by the circumstances of the 
moment than anything else, yet his conquests and his con- 
version laid the foundation of the great Prankish Empire. 
Towards the close of the sixth century, the Pranks had ex- 
tended their power over what now corresponds to the Prance 
and Belgium of our times, together with part of Western 
Germany as far as Aix-la-Chapelle. 

In 511 Clovis died at Paris, and regarding his possessions 
as purely personal, distributed them among his four sons — an 
example which was followed by later Merovingian kings and 
which lead to the ultimate division of the Prankish realm into 
Neustria, the West Kingdom, with its capital at Paris, and 
Austrasia, the East Kingdom, with its capital at Aachen, or 
Aix-la-Chapelle. 

36. Justinian. — The Emperor Justinian affords a type of 
an altogether different character. Around him are grouped 
the most remarkable events of the Eastern Empire and the in- 
fluences of that empire on Western Europe. 

The immediate predecessor of Justinian was his uncle, the 
emperor Justin, a peasant of Illyria, an able soldier and a suc- 
cessful general. He w^as void, however, of the rudiments of 



RIVAL FACTIONS 2y 

learning' and was glad to avail himself of the assistance of 
the youthful Justinian for whom he had procured a wide and 
liberal education at the University of Athens. 

Justinian succeeded to the imperial throne in 527, i\.. D., 
and by the wideness of his interests, and his skill in choosing 
his instruments accomplished many things and with conspicu- 
ous success. 

37. The " Greens " and " Blues." — Perhaps the most diffi- 
cult of his tasks was the restoration of internal peace and 
tranquillity. The obstacle to this had all along been the con- 
test between the two rival factions labeled respectively the 
Greens and the Blues. The Blues were loyal to the emperor 
and orthodox, the Greens were devoted to a rival claimant to 
the throne and were heretics. From very early times there 
had been in Constantinople different parties who were named 
after different colors worn originally by rival contestants in 
the circus ; soon these parties became rallying centers for all 
the opp(.)sing elements in the empire; and the colors became 
symbols of opposing strife, not only in the state, but also in 
religious affairs. 

Justinian's attempt to cjuell the disorder occasioned by these 
factions only had the effect of causing them to combine against 
himself. So desperate was his condition that he was on the 
point of fleeing from Constantinople, and was only deterred 
by the insistence of his wife Theodora, who persuaded him to 
.remain and fight for his throne. He followed her advice. 
The rioters were completely subdued and the city was soon 
entirely at the mercy of the emperor. 

38. Conquests of Belisarius and Narses. — Justinian then 
tried to recover from the Germans the provinces that had 
been snatched from the empire. In 533 he sent a powerful 
army under Belisarius into Africa in order to crush the king- 



28 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

dom that had there been set up by the \'andals. The task was 
rendered easier by the fact that the orthodox Christians of 
the African province were badly disposed toward their Vandal 
rulers and welcomed Belisarius as a deliverer from the fetters 
of heretical bondage. On the feast of St. Cyprian, the great 
African Saint. Belisarius entered the walls of Carthage in 
triumphal procession, after which Gelimer, then king of the 
\'andals. was beaten and the old province of Africa was re- 
stored to the empire. 

Belisarius then crossed over into Italy and began to subdue 
the East Goths. Xaples and Sicily fell into his hands, and 
even Rome surrendered. But the Ostrogoths rallied against 
the invader. Belisarius. owing to insufficient support from the 
emperor had to be recalled and his place was taken by another 
able general, called Xarses. who in 552. at the battle of Ta- 
gin:e. completely crushed the East Goths. The whole of Italy 
for a time thus fell under the emperor's control, but large 
portions of this conquest fell away. The only permanent ele- 
ment of it was the district round Ravenna. This was called 
the Exarchate of Ravenna, from the word " exarch '" which 
was the title of the prefect that ruled it in the name oi the 
emperor at Constantinople. 

Even the \\"est Goths in Spain did not escape the attention 
of Justinian. A Greek army was sent into Spain and con- 
quered an important strip of territory on the southeast coast. 

39. Affairs in the East. — At home. Justinian tried to pro- 
mote the industrial strength and prosperity of the country. 
But unfortunately one of his ministers. John of Cappadocia. 
largelv neutralized his efforts in this direction. Owing to the 
baleful activity of this individual, the provinces, especially 
Lvdia and Cilicia were laid under heavy taxation ; the state 
post was abolished, and trade was hampered by the imposi- 
tion of heavy duties on all exports and imports. 



CODIFICATION OF THE LAW 29 

In religious matters Justinian exercised a strong active 
influence. He himself was an orthodox Catholic and did his 
best to put down heresy and paganism. One conspicuous act 
of this policy was the closing of the University of Athens. 
Although some of the greatest Catholic writers had been 
educated there, yet it was certainly a place of refuge for the 
old pagan traditions. Most of the professors were pagans, 
and in spite of isolated instances, its general spirit was an- 
tagonistic to the spirit of Christianity. 

40. The Codification of the Roman Law. — The crowning 
achievement of the reign of Justinian was the codification of 
Roman Law ; that is to say, he brought into some sort of unity 
its scattered fragments. These fragments may be classified 
as follows. 

(a) The Tzvelve Tables of the Lazv. 451 B. C. These 
form the first instance of written law in Roman history, and 
were drawn up in answer to a demand of the people who re- 
sented the uncertainty and hardship arising from a lack of 
fixed standard of justice. 

(b) TJie Resolutions of the People. In the early days of 
the Roman republic the plebeiscita or resolutions of the 
people occupied the most important place in legislation. 
When however the Senate by degrees assumed the real con- 
trol of legislation, then the 

(c) Seuatus Consul fa or decrees of the senate occupied 
the more important position in the Roman code of laws. 

(d) P rectors' Edict. Besides these sources of Roman 
law there were the decisions of the Prsetors which practically 
correspond to our judge-made law. The laws of the Tables 
were meant only for Roman citizens. But as Rome enlarged 
her possessions, she found herself brought more and more 
into contact with strangers. Disputes sometimes rose be- 
tween these strangers and Roman citizens. Rome was un- 



30 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

willing to allow them the privilege of being tried by her own 
laws so she devised a code of law specially adapted for such 
cases. Already she had noticed that other nations had cer- 
tain common elements of jurisprudence; so she grouped these 
together and applied to them the name Jus Gentium or Law 
of Nations. This closely corresponds to what philosophers 
call natural law. A special praetor was appointed every year 
to administer this law% and the edict which he pronounced on 
his entry into office also formed part of the Roman code. 

(e) RcspO)isa rnidcntum. These were the opinions of 
Roman lawyers. In "those days a clever lawyer would be 
visited by crowds of clients who put to him all sorts of ques- 
tions on cases both real and imaginary. His answers to these 
questions soon occupied the same position, as the case law does 
in our times. 

41. The Justinian Code. — It is evident that in such a num- 
ber of laws, drawn from so many different sources, there must 
have been a great number of contradictions and inconsist- 
encies, and it was in order to remove these, as well as to make 
some classification, that Justinian ordered an eminent lawyer. 
Tribonjus, to collect and arrange all these scattered fragments 
of the law. The work was successfully accomplished. The 
laws themselves were arranged into one ordered group called 
the Justinian Code. The opinions and decisions of lawyers 
and judges were arranged into another group called the Pan- 
dccta, and the laws which were issued afterwards by Justinian 
himself were allotted a distinct place by themselves, and called 
the NovcUcc. A treatise called Institutes was also prepared 
on the general principles of Roman Law. 

This work of Justinian was of supreme importance and re- 
mains even to our own times. It was adopted by all the Latin 
nations, and even occupies an important place in the codes of 
the Southern States of America, in fact had the Justinian 



BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 



31 



code appeared earlier, it might even have been adopted by the 
Teutonic nations. 

42. Byzantine Architecture.— Besides the codification of 
Roman law, there is still another evidence of the wide rano-e 
of Justinian's mind, and that is the numerous buildings of 
the Byzantine style of architecture that rose during his reign. 








Sii^MX 




Church of St. Sophia. Built by Justinian in 538 on the site of a church founded 
by Constantine, it was made into a mosque by the Turks after the capture of Con- 
stantinople in 145.1. The diameter of the central dome is 107 feet. The four 
towers are of Moslem origin. From the balconies, the Muezzin, or priest calls the 
people to prayers. 



What the Acropolis has done for Athens, and the Temple of 
Jupiter for Rome, that the church of St. Sophia in Constan- 
tinople has done for Justinian and the Eastern Empire. It 
is a standing symbol of original genius and distinct national 
character. St. Sophia is cruciform in shape and surmounted 
in its center by a huge dome. No expense was spared in its 
materials : marble, granite, and porphyry being brought from 
Egypt and other places. The size of the dome alone may be 



3^^ GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

estimated from the fact that it is lighted by forty windows. 
The example of St. Sophia soon introduced the Byzantine 
stvle of architecture into other parts of Europe. Even at the 
present dav this style is still used in Russia and reminds the 
traveller of the greatness of that Byzantine empire in which 
Justinian played such an important part. 

Gregory the Great 

43. The Lombards in Italy. — The same period of history 
tliat saw the destruction of the East Gothic kingdom in Italy 
and the death of Justinian, witnessed also the successful in- 
vasion of Italy by the Lombards. L'nlike the East Goths, 
who settled dowTi peaceably in the country they occupied, the 
Lombards wandered restlessly alx>ut the peninsula spreading 
ruin and devastation wherever they went. Those of them 
who were not pagans were Arians, and all were bitterly hos- 
tile to the Catholic Church. Failing to take the whole of 
Italv. thev eventually settled in certain definite localities form- 
ing a Lombard kingdom, the capital of which was Pavia, the 
residence of the Lombard kings. The great plain of Lom- 
bardv takes its name from them. They also had extensive 
possessions in the middle of Italy, the most important of these 
being the duchies of Benevento and Spoleto. 

44. Rising Influence of the Church. — The Lombard inva- 
sion considerably weakened the Roman element in Italy and 
caused great misery and confusic>n. Amidst the anarchy of 
the times it was the Catholic bishop that still maintained the 
traditions of law and order, and it was mainly owing to his 
auspices that the city still remained the center of government 
and administration. 

45. Rise of Western Monasticism. — There was also an- 
other influence that tended to increase the influence of the 



RISE OF WESTERN MONASTICISM 33 

Church, and that was the rise of monasticism. The essence 
of the rehgious life consists in taking the three vows of pov- 
erty, chastity, and obedience, and even from ApostoHc times 
there were men who had embraced such reHgious Hfe. Up 
to the fifth century the home of religious life had been in the 
East. There the monks lived in solitude and extreme asceti- 
cism. Though they were subject to the rule of a superior, 
there was no community life, each monk living retired apart 
in his own little cell. But the monastic system when intro- 
duced into the West, assumed a different character and one 
that was more suited to the requirements of the people. In 
the year 480 at Nursia in the Sabine Hills, was born St. 
Benedict who may be called the founder of Western Monasti- 
cism. When he reached the age of fourteen he became dis- 
gusted with the vanities and dangers of the world, and sought 
refuge in the solitude where he might spend his time in re- 
flection and prayer. Others attracted by the fame of his vir- 
tues gathered around him and thus was formed a religious 
community. 

It became necessary to organize these aspirants after re- 
ligious perfection, and St. Benedict drew up a rule contain- 
ing seventy-three articles. The rule was mainly an abridg- 
ment of the counsels of Christian doctrine and was adapted to 
the needs of a community life. Some sort of hierarchy was 
established. The first in authority was the abbot : next to 
him came the pri(jr, and below the prior was the dean, who 
had jurisdiction over ten monks. 

46. Early Career of Gregory. — One of the most distin- 
guished members of the order was St. Gregory the Great. 
Born of a noble and wealthy family, and conspicuous for his 
virtue and ability he soon rose to high office in the state and 
even became pr?etor of Rome. The pope was so impressed 
with his prudence and skill that he was sent as nuncio to the 



34 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

court at Constantinople. When Gregory returned after the 
honorable fulfillment of his mission, he joined the monks at St. 
Benedict of whom he soon became abbot. His past experience 
was therefore exceedingly wide and varied. His experience 
of civil life and his knowledge of ecclesiastical diplomacy and 
his profound acquaintance with the religious life made him a 
most worthy successor to Pope Pelagius. 

47. Gregory's Temporal Administration. — Gregory as 
pope was at the same time governor of Rome, and his adminis- 
tration was firm and prudent. He put down disorder, im- 
proved the condition of the Roman people, and handed on a 
tradition of political government. With the revenues de- 
rived from his property, Gregory managed not only to pro- 
vide for the defense and other needs of Rome, but also to 
make a monthly distribution of money and bread to the poor. 
The good effects of his administration were quickly seen not 
only in Rome but throughout the Papal Dominions, which ex- 
tended into Sicily, Dalmatia, Gaul, and Sardinia. These pos- 
sessions were cultivated by tenants who wTre bound to the 
soil, and had to pay taxes in money or in kind. Each sepa- 
rate estate was governed by an overseer, and over these offi- 
cials Gregory exercised an untiring vigilance. 

48. Gregory's Spiritual Activity. — But it is the spiritual 
activity of Gregory that chiefly contributed to the splendor of 
his reign. With high-minded energy he devoted himself to 
the interests of the Church. While he was yet abbot he had 
noticed certain Anglo-Saxons standing in the forum at Rome, 
and inquiring into their origin wished to go himself to Brit- 
ain in order to convert their countrymen, and was only pre- 
vented by the insistence of the pope himself. But when 
Gregory ascended the papal chair he sent St. Augustine to 
England, and thus ultimately brought about the conversion 



GREGORY THE GREAT 35 

of that country to the faith. St. Augustine landed (597) on 
the shores of Kent, converted Ethelbert, the king of Kent, 
together with a great number of the king's followers, while 
Paulinus, one of St. Augustine's companions, introduced 
Christianity into the North of England and prepared the way 
for the missionary labors of the Irish saints. The light of 
faith kindled by St. Gregory soon spread from England to 
Germany. English missionaries, of whom St. Boniface was 
most conspicuous, labored with untiring energy among the 
heathen Franks and Saxons. 

Pope Gregory also converted the Lombards in Italy. This 
he did mainly through the instrumentality of Queen Theode- 
bunda whose royal influence was not exerted in vain. 

Even the Visigoths and the Suevi in Spain were brought 
into the true fold by the unlimited zeal of Gregory. 

49. His Organization of the Church. — But the spiritual 
activity of Pope Gregory is perhaps still more interesting in 
its general influence on the Church. He was careful to pro- 
mote the strictness of religious life by providing that none 
should take the vows before the age of eighteen, and that lay 
administrators should take charge of the property of reli- 
gious. He strove to tighten the reins of ecclesiastical disci- 
pline over the general body of clergy and was careful to 
enforce on them the rule of celibacy. Also for the guidance 
of the clergy in their sacred duties he wrote a work called 
" Cura Pastoralis " which was afterward translated into Ene- 
lish by King Alfred. 

It was Pope Gregory that chiefly organized the splendid 
ceremonial of Catholic ritual in the West, and that collected 
and arranged the so-called Gregorian music and established 
it by authority. Nor was Gregory unmindful of the uses 
and attractions of literature. While there were some in the 
papal Curia wdio knew Greek, Gfegory himself, in spite of 



36 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

his mission to Constantinople, seems to have been ignorant 
of that language ; yet both he himself and his attendants were 
well versed in the most polished forms of Latin literature, 
and his care for the education of the young is shown in his 
erection of orphan asylums and schools for the poor. 

50. Character of Gregory. — The type presented to us by 
St. Gregory is perhaps more interesting than the other three 
that we have been considering, because it presents so many 
varied aspects, and, more than all, because the purity of his 
motives was beyond suspicion. He realized in his life what 
he himself describes in one of his epistles, " my honor is the 
honor of the whole Church, my honor is to behold the bishops 
filled with single-minded and earnest energy. Then only do 
I feel that I enjoy true honor, when the honor due to all is 
denied to none." The glory of God and the exaltation of His 
Church was the chief end of all his actions. 

It was such characters as that of Gregory that, thriving in 
the soil of monasticism, saved Europe from utter barbarism 
during the perils that threatened her from internal anarchy 
and from the invasion of the Saracens. It was this spirit 
of religious fervor that slowly broke down the walls that di- 
vided society and that stirred the Christians of Europe to take 
up arms against the enemy that in a short time was to threaten 
the existence of civilized society. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Character of Theodoric — His policy and administration — 
Cassiodorus and Boethius — Theodoric's foreign policy — 
Theodoric's attitude towards the Church — Character of the 
Franks — Conquests by Franks under Clovis — Franks embrace 
orthodox form of Christianity — Clovis' conquests of the Visi- 
goths — Character of Justinian — Difificulties that he had to 
fight — ^ Justinian's conquests in Africa and in Italy — Justinian's 
home and commercial policy — His attitude towards religion — 
Justinian's code, what it contained and its importance — Byzan- 



TOPICAL SUMMARY 2>7 

tine architecture under Justinian — The Lombard invasions — 
Confusion in Italy — Chief preserver of order is the Bishop — 
The Benedictine monks — Character of Pope Gregory the Great 
— Pope Gregory's administration of Rome and of the papal 
states — Conversions of the English, the Germans, the Visigoths 
and the Lombards — Gregory's care for the spiritual improve- 
ment of the Church — His patronage of the arts and letters. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

ViLLARi, Invasions of Italy; Munro and Sellery, Medieval Civilisation; 
Gibbon, Decline and Fall; Oman, Byzant'me Empire; Harrison, The 
Byzantine Empire in the Early Middle Ages; Procopius, De Edificiis 
Domini Justiniani; Emerton, Introduction to the Study of the Middle 
Ages; Henderson, Select Historical Documents; Hatch, Early Organisa- 
tion of the Christian Church; Hodgkin, Theodoric; Translations of 
Letters of Cassidonis; Sergeant, The Franks; Adams, Growth of the 
French Nation; Hadley, Introduction to Roman Law. 



CHAFTFR IV 

5x. N; . V ; V / \\>st. — AKmh the nn>f that 

there rvx-ii : \ . . ■''-.: \\^^ vkr?t«>e\i t\^ hax^f a §Tfat <^- -^ 
in $hs|«r 5^ 'Jx' \\>$t. Alrt^adv there h*vl V . 

:j5.^t*e coijiw>iwicitk>n betw^^en the dviluatiott of the Ea^i 
; .>£ tbe \Ve$t. The w^r? bet\\^ee?\ the IVrj^aiv?; ami 

5, V V vVx>^ the t^MJixljitkMx ot the Gneek Orw^ial eiiipsr^ by 
Ak-xjij^^kr the Oif^eat, a«d the actixSty ot the R<>5i\a« ei«per- 
•or? are ^^iiWk^u prcy>t$ that the tvro dvili2atio«v? wieiti' not 
xdvvlh" s^ Aiv5 iv-w theT>e n^jse in the K;a5^ a j^w re- 

%x^x. w . . ,<he<T hrate t^Mv^e >!6en>ev3 likely ;tT vm^ iin>e 
ty> o>\^rwhe3ra the vrhoJe of Ewr<>5^. 

5a> Tlie AnfeHA Pi»un$ul3L — v:^, 
«ex\^ nv'\>en*etxt. Thi?; d^:>ir>a ^.:> a p. -. . . \ . ; > .^^ av 
$>q\»T>e t«^te§ m e>cte«t. Jind sittiated hetw^ewt Fversia, Eg\-pt, 
aix! SxTii. It <eo«i;a>^ toar the nv>>t part ot a lanje plateau 
t^'- ' -%"Tt3im pUaoe? ik^?Joe?>3>5 abruptly to the $iea. It cv«- 
t. - - * roe*ik>\\^ jvaln^ tr^eiJs and spsoe^ and one part of 
k fe the ho«ne of the swiftes? I^>eev5 of hors>e$ and carads^ Tbe 
iiihabiitai«t$ ai>e S-waiiv, that i:? to sax*, they beicvi^ to the 
$aane race a>: the Jew^ thiX^ their langnage <fiffiers fivMn die 
J<exiri<h b3'^:tj^§t'. At the tin>e wheal Mohammedanism ap- 
peared they had no ors^aniaevl states^, hat Kved a:? >scattered 
tnbe$ bet\\>e>e« whon^ rfje mam, pef)Hq»$ the only sosonnw of 
conwBwnicai^i^ \ca? the caravansv cr companies: of n*M>chants, 
that traveicvi together for ^rr^eater sjecmity, TT>eir ne)%;ion 
w^ij; a cntiow^ n^evJley of hehefs. hro«^;ht together from dif- 

;^55 



A NI:W r I.I.I f:iON 39 

fcrcnl sources. Slur-worship, ( tn-.i-M mytholoj(y, and fraj<- 
iiHMjts of riirisfi;iij lr,vlit,ion, all fouu'l plaa: in their worship. 

53. Early Life of Mohammed. — It was in this country in 
ihc y<;ar 570 A.J>>. that .Vlohaint/jcd was Ix^rn. His parents 
died when he was still very younj^, and his early youth was 
pa-.,f:d nudr-r the rare of his uncle, who treaterl him kindly, 
hut who seems to have done little to procure for him the rudi- 
ments of a liheral education. In fact, he a^uld neither re;id 
nor write. His chief oa:upation was that of a shepherd boy. 

At fifteen years of ajje he entered the service of a rich 
widow called Kadijah, 'i'his proved to l>e the turninj( point 
fjf his career, ile acquired money and influence, and what, 
was i>erhaps still more imix^rtant, leisure to tjea^me a day- 
drcainc-r. 

54. A Ncv/ Religion. — 1 Ic began to have visions, and 
even fjrcamcd that the Archanj^el <^iahriel apj>eared trj him 
and made certain revelations. Soon, these <'lay-dreams and 
supjjosed revelations coalesced into a kind of systematic creed 
whose monotheistic nature was opposed to the relig^ious cus- 
toms of the town of Mecca in which he lived and which cer- 
tainly tended to weaken the influence of the priests of the 
idolatrous worship, 'ihe result was that the people of Mecca 
rose against him, and he was compelled, in 622, to fly to the 
town of -Medina, 'ihis flight afterwards Ijecame famous in 
history and is called the Ilegira, Mohammed, however, did 
not remain long in exile. He returned to Mecca with an 
armed force anrl made himself master not only of the city, 
hut also of the whole of Arabia, 

55. Doctrines of the Koran. — Mohammed now l>egan to 
write down the revelations that he claimed to have received. 
These formed a book called the Koran, which not only con- 



DOCTRINES OF THE KORAN 4 1 

tains the religious and moral code of the Mohammedans but 
also regulates all their civil, legal, and military affairs. 

The chief doctrines of ^Mohammed were simple, and were by 
no means original. He upheld the doctrine of one God, but 
without distinction of Three Persons, and taught that Abra- 
ham, Moses, and Christ were alike messengers of divine reve- 
lation of which he himself was the fullest exponent. Re- 
demption, justification, and grace found no place in the creed 
of Mohammed, but the doctrine of future reward and pun- 
ishment was taught in a material and sensual fashion. 

One very important characteristic doctrine of the IMoham- 
medans was fatalism. They believed that a certain given 
result was bound to take place not by providential action of 
efficient causes, but by an express pre-determination of destiny. 
Such a doctrine necessarily had great influence upon their po- 
litical and military character. It gave to them a certain stoi- 
cism and fortitude in the midst of the most trying events and 
gave to them in war a violent recklessness which few could 
withstand. 

56. Externals of Mohammedanism. — The practices of the 
Mohammedans have, in common with those of other false re- 
ligions, this characteristic, that they regard mainly the ex- 
ternals of religion and pay very little heed to the conditions of 
true interior sanctification. Prayer five times a day, alms- 
giving both of money and goods, the obligatory yearly fast 
during the month of Ramadan and optional fasts during the 
year, and at least one pilgrimage to Mecca during the course 
of one's life-time — these were the chief of their pious prac- 
tices. Their private life was regulated by precepts, some of 
which were rather austere. Intoxicating liquors are forbid- 
den, and some extended the prohibition even to the use of 
coffee, on account of its disturbing influence on the imagina- 
tion. Certain games of chance were also forbidden. Broth- 



42 MOHAMMED AND THE ARABIAN CONQUESTS 

erly charity was inculcated, widows and orphans were to be 
protected, and slaves to be treated with consideration. 

The most objectionable practice in the Mohammedan reli- 
gion was polygamy. In this Mohammed himself set an evil 
example by marrying no fewer than seventeen wives, but he 
strove to restrain the practice among his followers by limit- 
ing the number to four. 

57. Spread of the New Religion. — The creed of Moham- 
med soon became the dominant religion in Arabia, and Mo- 
hammed himself became at once both pope and king of the 
now united nation of Arabia, which had become a theocratic 
state, that is, a state which is also a church. But the enthusi- 
asm inspired by the personality of Mohammed did not confine 
itself to Arabia. Conquest and expansion became the key- 
note of his policy, and the Mohammedan invasion soon 
reached the borders of the Greek and Persian empires. 

Mohammed, however, did not live to see the full achieve- 
ment of these successes. He died in 632, and Abu Beker was 
elected as his successor. Abu Beker was less of a visionar)' 
than Mohammed, but endowed with greater practical energy. 
In a very short time the revolts that had arisen in Arabia on 
the death of Mohammed were crushed, Syria was overrun and 
when Abu Beker died in the full tide of conquest, his place 
was quickly taken by Omar who completed the conquests of 
Beker and planned others even still more extensive. 

58. Foreign Conquests. — Syria was now completely sub- 
jugated; indeed, the lax and indolent character of the Syrians 
made them an easy prey for any invaders, while its riches af- 
forded a temptation hard to resist. Syria at that time was a 
large and populous country, with many rich cities. The capi- 
tal was Antioch, called on account of its affluence and splen- 
dor, " The Crown of the East." Not only was it a celebrated 



MOHAMMEDAN CONQUESTS 43 

emporium, but it was also one of the earliest centers of Chris- 
tianity, and was also a patriarchate. From Syria the tide of 
invasion swept over the Holy Land. Jerusalem was taken 
and on the platform of one of its temples was erected a 
mosque, called after Omar, " The Mosque of Omar." This 
is an eight-sided building, with beautiful porches and brilliant 
mosaics, and under the dome of the building is the sacred 
rock on which it was believed that Abraham was about to sac- 
rifice Isaac. 

Omar then turned his arms against the Persians, whom 
he defeated with almost as much ease as the Syrians. The 
chief religion of the Persians was Zoroastrianism, one of 
whose chief practices was till quite recently supposed to be 
fire-worship. Many of the Persians fled to India, and their 
descendants are now called Parsees. 

The wars of conquest did not stop even here. In 634 
Omar was hesitating in his mind whether he should attack 
Egypt. Amron, his able general, was already on the fron- 
tier. Omar sent him a letter bidding him to return. But 
Amron, guessing its contents, refrained from opening the let- 
ter till he had crossed the frontier. Egypt soon fell, and 
with it was also taken Alexandria, the center of intellectual 
and commercial activity, the home of the Jewish philosophy, 
the city of Philo, of Origen and Clement. Christianity was 
almost entirely stamped out, the Copts alone retaining some of 
the traditions of the ancient faith. 

It soon became evident that Europe itself would soon be- 
come the next object of attack, and Spain was the first country 
to bear the brunt of the invasion. Spain at that time was in 
a feeble condition. The Visigoths had become corrupt and 
feeble, the kings were destitute of ability and all was in a 
state of division and anarchy, the bishop alone still remain- 
ing the upholder of law and order. A certain Count Julian, 
through motives of revenge invited the Arabs to cross over 



44 MOHAMMED AND THE ARABIAN CONQUESTS 

into the country. The invitation was accepted. Tarik, the 
Arab chief, lead his troops over to Gibraltar; at the battle of 
Zeres, King Roderick was slain, and in 701 Spain as far as 
the Pyrenees, fell into the hands of the Arabs. 

In the early part of the eighth century Mohammedanism 
had reached its furthest limits of conquest. In addition to 
the territories already mentioned, it had obtained possession 
of the islands of the Mediterranean, including Cyprus, while 
swarms of Arabian pirates infested the whole of the Medi- 
terranean, and even Constantinople itself was in danger. 

59. Decline of Mohammedanism. — But fortunately for 
Western civilization Arabian Mohammedanism began to de- 
cline. All great movements are generally followed by a re- 
action, and this is especially the case where the success of 
such movements depend a great deal upon emotional enthu- 
siasm. This was the case with Mohammedanism. The per- 
sonal influence of Mohammed had produced much the same 
kind of emotional fervor as we see in some of our new mod- 
ern religions. But when Mohammed and the able leaders 
who succeeded him had passed away a reaction set in, and 
the " faithful " were not so willing to extend the " cause " or 
to expose their heads on the field of battle for the certainty 
of entering more quickly into the possession of their heavenly 
reward. 

Even this, however, hardly suffices to account for the rapid 
decline of Arabian Mohammedanism. There were also po- 
litical causes at work. We have seen that the wise and 
statesmanlike Abu Beker who succeeded Mohammed was him- 
self succeeded by Omar. Omar was followed by Othman, 
an old man and capable of very little energy. When Othman 
died in 655, Ali succeeded. Though Ali had been the earliest 
and most enthusiastic disciple of Mohammed, he was pre- 
vented from succeeding earlier, owing to the enmity of Mo- 



HAROUN-AL-RASCHID 45 

hammed's favorite wife. Even now the claims of Ali were 
disputed, and Islam became divided into two camps, one of 
which upheld while the other rejected the claims of Ali. 
Soon these two great factions were at rivalry with one an- 
other. In the West there arose a line of Caliphs called the 
Ommiades, and in the East there was the line of Abbassides, 
the centre of whose power was at Bagdad in Persia. And 
shortly after this there arose also (929) another line of 
Caliphs in Cordova in Spain, and again another in Cairo, 
called the Fatimites, claiming descent from Fatima, the 
daughter of Mohammed. 

60. The Dynasty of the Abassides. — Perhaps the most il- 
lustrious of these great rival dynasties was that of the xA.b- 
bassides in Bagdad. Haroun-al-Raschid is perhaps the most 
brilliant representative of his line. His name has been 
made famous in the Arabian Nights Tales. Though some 
writers have exaggerated the moral goodness of his charac- 
ter, yet he was an able and a very learned man, who tried to 
administer justice in some sort of ready fashion. He was 
also a skilful organizer, and succeeded in establishing an 
elaborate machinery of government in which boards, or com- 
mittees of men, played a very important part. There were, 
for example, boards of trade, finance, and correspondence. 
Later on, under the successors of Haroun, there seems to have 
been introduced a strong feudal element. Provinces were 
granted to soldiers on condition of their collecting the reve- 
nue; out of this they had to provide for their own personal 
expenses, and after paying the troops, had to remit a certain 
sum of money to the court at Bagdad. Then the practice 
crept in of allotting towns or districts to the members of the 
ruling family, with all the jurisdiction of feudal lords. 

Under the Abassides dynasty, Bagdad became famous for 
its wealth and magnificence. It grew into a city of marble 



46 MOHAMMED AND THE ARABIAN CONQUESTS 

palaces, full of costly furniture and gold and silver orna- 
ments, while cathedral mosques of huge structure and quaint 
styles, and marble fountains of ever-flowing water added 
splendor and variety to the appearance of the city. Culture 
and refinement were also present. There were public li- 
braries, and booksellers' shops, and such social pastimes as 
music and chess gave dignity even to lighter hours. 

6i. Rise of the Turks. — But even this, the most learned, 
the most civilized portion of the Mohammedan world was now 
threatened by a new and terrible enemy. This was the Turks, 
who were inhabitants of Turkestan, in Central Asia, and who, 
on account of their race and barbaric characteristics, were very 
different from the Arabian Mohammedans whom they were 
destined to conquer. At first the caliphs found it convenient 
to hire troops of these soldiers to ward off foreign invasions. 
But soon these mercenaries acquired complete control. They 
managed to dwarf completely the central power; they made 
and unmade caliphs as they pleased, on one occasion setting 
up four caliphs and deposing them for sheer sport. It was 
not long indeed, before these Turkish tribes became complete 
masters of the Mohammedan world. 

62. Invasion of Europe Checked. — But some years before 
the Arabian world began to suffer from the aggressions of 
the Turks, it also suffered two very severe checks from the 
Christians. In 720 the Arabs invaded Constantinople but 
were expelled with great loss, partly owing to the strong 
walls that had been erected by Justinian, and partly owing to 
the strength and energy of the Isaurian dynasty, then reign- 
ing at Constantinople. Again in 732, near Tours, in the 
south of France the Arabian invaders were crushed by 
Charles Martel, the leader of the Prankish hosts. These two 
battles had the effect of preventing the Arabs from pouring 
over Europe. 



MOHAMMEDANISM CHECKED 47 

Their power, however, was not altogether destroyed. 
They became a formidable naval power in the Mediterranean. 
They attacked even Rome, and it was on account of their pres- 
ence that the Leonine walls were built by Pope Leo IV, about 
850. These walls enclosed that part of the city which is west 
of the Tiber, containing the Vatican, Castle of St. Angelo, 



t 


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A 




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M 


H 




' "' . " 


Rm 


^.- 


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^S 


B^^^S»», ^ 


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^- *viriw*»- -■ :^ i 




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■| 


wm^' 


jk 


J^l^^ 


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Luokiiig across the Tiber toward the west. The round structure is the castle of St. 
Angelo, while in the background are seen St. Peter's and the Vatican. 

and a district called the Borgo — the whole of this enclosed 
space being sometimes called the Leonine city. 

But by the ninth century Arabian Mohammedanism began 
rapidly to decline. The decay of its enthusiasm, the aggres- 
sions of the Turks, the checks that it had received at the hands 
of the Christians, and its own internal divisions, soon ac- 
complished its complete overthrow. 

63. Mohammedan Culture. — In estimating the effects of 
Arabian Mohammedanism we must not forget that though 



48 



MOHAMMED AND THE ARABIAN CONQUESTS 



it was a lower type of civilization than the European, yet it 
had important results on European culture and mental prog- 
ress. It spread the study of philosophy, law, rhetoric, mathe- 
matics, and philology, and it was partly through them that 
the study of Aristotle became so wide-spread throughout the 
Church. To the Arabs we are indebted for our knowledge 
of Algebra, and for the use of the Arabic numerals. In 




A part of the Hall of the Ambassadors in the Alcazar at Seville. The arches, col- 
umns, and ornamentation are characteristic of the Moorish, or Arabesque, style 
of architecture. 



medicine and in chemistry they made a good beginning, and 
many substances, such as alcohol and nitric acid, were dis- 
covered by them. Their liberality of taste seems to have 
been almost unlimited, and the immense number of manu- 
scripts in the library of Madrid, written on all sorts of sub- 
jects sufficiently testifies to the extent of their knowledge. 
Indeed, the most celebrated schools of learning in Europe 



EFFECT OF ARAB INVASION 49 

were Arabian, and were frequented even by Christian schol- 
ars, among the most noteworthy of whom was Gerbert, who 
afterwards became Pope Sylvester II. 

64. The Unity of European Nations was greatly promoted 
by the invasion of the Saracens. Nothing is so powerful as 
foreign invasion to knit society together. On the field of 
Chalons all the groups of the great Aryan family fought side 
by side, and on France especially the effect of this union was 
soon to become apparent. The invasion of the Saracens gave 
to its ruler, Charles Martel, the opportunity that the war 
with the Persians gave to Alexander the Great. It enabled 
him to submerge intestine strife under the plea and necessity 
of leading the nation against a common foe. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Contact between civilizations of East and West — Arabia — 
Early years of Mohammed — His conquest of Arabia — The 
doctrines and practices of Mohammed — Successor of Mo- 
hammed — Mohammedan conquest of Syria, Palestine, Persia, 
and Egypt — Mohammedan invasions of Europe — Moral causes 
of the decline of Mohammedanism — Political causes of the 
same — ■ The rival dynasties of Mohammedan caliphs — Great- 
ness of the dynasty of the Abassides — Grandeur of the city 
of Bagdad — Turkish invasion and conquest of Arabian Mo- 
hammedanism — Disasters suffered in Europe by the Arabian 
Mohammedans — Contribution of Arabian Mohammedanism to 
Western civilization, learning, and culture. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

MuiR, Mohamuicd ; Gilman, Saracens ; Lane Poole, Speeches and Table 
Talk of Molwmmcd ; Amur Ali, the Sfirit of Islam; Smith, The Bible 
of Islam; Piggott, Persia, Ancient and Modern; Adams, Civilisation Dur- 
ing Middle Ages; Duruy, Middle Ages. 



CHAPTER V 

THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY 

65. Changes in the Prankish Kingdom. — In the previous 
chapter we saw how Charles Martel defeated the Arabian in- 
vaders near the town of Tours, — an event that brings into 
prominence a new dynasty that was now arising to greatness 
among the Franks. 

The old Merovingian dynasty, that had derived so much 
splendor from the achievements of Clovis, was now fast de- 
clining. It is true that the possessions acquired by him were 
extensive, but there prevailed among the Prankish chieftains 
the disastrous tradition that a father's territorial possessions, 
even if he be a king, should be divided among all his children. 
The result was continual quarrels and divisions, and the de- 
struction of national unity. At the same time, the old Prank- 
ish chieftains had lost a great deal of that martial energy^ and 
barbaric virility that had been such a large element of their 
success. 

66. Dagobert I. — Only one or two names seem to stand 
out from the long line of mediocrities. Dagobert I reigned 
from 628 to 639, and for a brief space restored unity to the 
kingdom. He was a great lover of order and justice, and 
was a conspicuous patron of the Church. He reduced to 
writing the customary laws of the kingdom, and built the cele- 
brated abbey of St. Denis which became the historic burial 
place of after kings of Prance. His reign also saw the en- 
largement of the frontiers of Prance, which now extended 
from the Weser in the East to the Pyrenees, and from the 
Western Ocean to the frontiers of Bohemia, 

51 



52 THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY 

67. Mayors of the Palace Assume Royal Power. — But 
Dagobert died in 638, and his successors soon lost all the 
substance of kingly power. This passed into the hands of 
the prime ministers of the king, who were called the Mayors- 
of the Palace. These soon usurped all real authority. The 
decline of the power of the nominal authority was also com- 
plicated by the division between the eastern and the western 
part of Gaul, called respectively Austrasia and Neustria. The 
eastern part was farther removed from Roman inHuences, 
and was much more barbarous and German in character than 
the western district. Open warfare soon broke out, and in 
689, at the battle of Testry, near Soissons, it wag decided 
that the leadership belonged to Austrasia, whose Mayor of 
the Palace, Pippin, now began to rule both Austrasia and 
Neustria. 

68. Pippin, wdio thus held the reins of supreme power in 
nominal subjection to his king, further strengthened the po- 
sition of his family by foreign conquests, and more than all, 
by an alliance with the Church. He conquered Swabia and 
Bavaria, two nations of Southern Germany, and he took care 
to make Christianity follow in the wake of his victorious 
arms. The most pious and zealous bishops were invited from 
distant countries to evangelize the conquered. Among these 
were Willibroad, " Apostle of the Frisians," who founded the 
see of Utrecht, and Boniface, " Apostle of Germany," who 
founded the see of Maintz. Together with these bishops were 
also a great number of monks, most of them from Ireland, 
which was already rich in the Christian faith and its virtues. 

69. Charles Martel. — Pippin was succeeded by Charles 
Martel, a stronger man than even Pippin had been. It was 
Charles Martel that defeated the Arabians at the battle of 
Tours, and he still continued Pippin's policy of co-operating 



PIPPIN AND POPE STEPHEN 53 

with the Pope, now Gregory II, by striving to spread Chris- 
tianity in central and southern Germany. 

70. Pippin II. — Charles Martel died in 741, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Pippin, who made the most of the strong 
position that had been left him by his father. In 751 he felt 
that he could now throw off all disguise and assuine even the 
outward appearance of kingly power, an appearance which 
still remained in the line of Clovis. He accordingly asked 
the Pope whether it was not better that the man who had the 
real power should not also have the title. The reply was af- 
firmative. Childeric was formally deposed, his long hair 
(the symbol of power) was cut off, and he himself quietly 
put into a monastery, while Pippin was hailed king of Franks. 

71. Close Alliance with the Pope. — This formal sanction 
of the Pope gave great influence and prestige to the new dy- 
nasty thus founded by Pippin, and now there began to be 
drawn still more closely those bonds of alliance between 
France and the Papacy that were destined to have such im- 
portant results in after history. Pope Stephen was sorely 
pressed by the Lombards, who, after making many conquests, 
even marched on Rome. So great was the danger that the 
Pope, to his own great risk, crossed the Alps and implored 
in person the protection of Pippin. The request was soon 
granted ; Pippin overcame the Lombards and forced them to 
restore the rights and possessions of the Church of Rome 
" donated to St. Peter, to the Church and to the Roman Re- 
public " (754). These possessions comprised the exarchate of 
Ravenna, and the territory of Bologna and Ferrara, all which 
ultimately went to form a substantial part of the Papal States. 

The intervention of Pippin is important because it showed 
that now the king of the Franks, not the Eastern emperor, 
was the real protector of Italy, and it thus emphasized the 



54 THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY 

growing estrangement between the Eastern and the Western 
Churches. Considerable friction had already been caused 
by the very different views that they held regarding the wor- 
ship of images. The Catholic Church upheld this worship 
as good and lawful, while the Eastern Christians rejected it 
as idolatrous. Even at the present day the Greek Church is 
conspcuous -for its denial of the worship of images, only 
pictures being seen in its sacred buildings. 

72. Charles the Great, — Pippin died in 768, and Charles, 
his eldest son, succeeded to Austrasia and Neustria and a part 
of Germany, while Carloman, the younger son, succeeded to 
Burgundy and southern Gaul. But Carloman soon died, and 
Charles then became sole ruler over the undivided Frankish 
monarchy (771)- 

The personality of Charles is supremely interesting, not 
only on account of all that he did, but because he blended in 
himself such different abilities of a very high order. He was 
a theorizer and a man of action. He took a keen interest in 
such academic studies as Latin, Music, and German gram- 
mar, and at the same time, could organize all the details of 
practical government. He could return from a long and sav- 
age campaign and issue instructions for the holding of synods 
and the conduct of the clergy. 

73. Conquests of Charles. — His foreign policy was firm 
and vigorous and the key-note of it was expansion — ex- 
pansion however within reasonable limits. After subduing 
the turbulent Franks and curbing the insubordination of his 
vassals he entered on a series of campaigns against the Sax- 
ons, who were the fiercest and most untractable of the German 
tribes. Eventually the Saxons under their leader Wittekind, 
were completely vanquished and the column of Irmin, a sym- 
bol of their national unity and strength, was taken and trans- 




§^JJ If 

5 a H= I I II Is 



CHARLEMAGNE CROWNED EMPEROR 55 

ferred to a monastery. Charlemagne, acting against the ad- 
vice of his clerical council, tried to convert the Saxons to 
Christianity by force, with the result that the desired process 
of conversion was retarded rather than hastened ; and it was 
only in spite of great difficulties that churches were erected 
and bishoprics established. Among these bishoprics were 
those of Osnabruck, Munster, Bremen, Verdun and Halber- 
stadt, all of which, even up to our own times, have held an 
important position in lay and ecclesiastical history. 

74. Coronation of Charles as Emperor. — There were wars 
also in Italy. In 798 there had been a revolt in Rome against 
Pope Leo III, on acount of certain criminal charges that had 
been made against him. The Pope fled to Charlemagne and 
begged to be reinstated in his authority at Rome. Charle- 
magne, while emphatically announcing the principle " that 
it was the right of the Pope to judge princes, and not theirs 
to judge him," acceded to the request. The Pope returned to 
Rome, accompanied by Charlemagne's officials. Charle- 
magne himself followed later, and on Christmas Day, 800, 
Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the Romans. 

The meaning of this important act is threefold. First, it 
lead to the establishment of what was called " The Holy Ro- 
man Empire of the German Nation." Hitherto, the different 
Germanic tribes had been at constant warfare with one an- 
other. There had Ijeen no theoretic basis of union and cen- 
tralization. This was now supplied, at least during Charle- 
magne's time, by the recognition of a superior and universal 
power. Second, it meant the withdrawal of the Romans from 
their allegiance to the Eastern imperial court. For this a 
justifiable pretext had been already found in the crimes and 
cruelty of the Empress Irene, who had dethroned and blinded 
her son Constantine VI. Third, it meant a still closer union 
between church and state — a union that was beneficial to 



56 THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY 

the Church on account of the protection it afforded in turbu- 
lent times, and beneficial to the state for the incentive that 
was given to culture and intellectual progress. Voltaire him- 
self says " If at this time the kingdom of Charles alone pos- 
sessed some measure of culture, it is probably to be ascribed 
to the fact that the emperor had made a journey to Rome." 

75. Extent of Charles' Domains. — Charles was now master 
of the greater part of Europe. Besides France itself, his 
empire included more than half of modern Germany, three- 
fourths of Italy, while on all the exposed frontiers, tributary 
states were set up which were strongly fortified and which 
served to protect what had already been won. His court soon 
became the centre of intercourse with foreign nations. Irene 
and her successors had at first stormed and raged and had re- 
fused to recognize him. But Charlemagne was so concilia- 
tory that by 813 he secured the recognition of his imperial 
dignity by the Eastern court, was greeted by its ambassa- 
dors as " Imperator " and " Basileus." With Ofifa, king of 
Mercia (the middle kingdom of England) Charlemagne kept 
up friendly relations, and later on, adopting a different policy, 
aided in building up the power of Wessex (the southern 
kingdom of England) against that of Mercia. Charles even 
corresponded with the Caliph of Bagdad, giving and receiving 
in return courtesies and presents. 

76. Charles' Domestic Policy. — Charles' domestic policy 
still maintained at least the forms of the old Teutonic demo- 
cratic institutions. The principle that all should deliberate 
and discuss matters of great moment, while the chiefs should 
deal with less important business, was still recognized. Twice 
in the year, in autumn and in spring, a general parliament was 
held of all the free men. The popular element of these meet- 
ings, however, has often been exaggerated, and in any case, 



ADMINISTRATION OF CHARLEMAGNE 57 

Charles often issued special laws of his own, called capitu- 
laries, which were less formal in appearance, but effected sub- 
stantially any change or reform that he desired. 

77. Units of Administration. — In order to extend his per- 
sonal rule and supervision into e\-ery part of the land, he also 
instituted a class of officials, all dependent upon him. Round 
his own person, and forming his household, or palatium, were 
the great nobles and clerics who formed a kind of permanent 
council of state. Then there was the count (graf) who in 
the emperor's name administered a great district, called gau, 
which corresponded to our modern county, the dukes, who 
fulfilled military functions, and the marchiones, or markgrafs, 
who were the counts of border districts. While in order to 
put a check on all these different officials, special commis- 
sioners were sent out in pairs, one generally being a clergy- 
man. They constituted not only a court of appeal, before 
which even high offenders could be arraigned, but they at- 
tended to such things as taxation, discipline of the army and 
e\en the good conduct of the clergy. 

78. Connection of Church and State. — In the whole of 
this system a very prominent part was taken by the Church. 
This, however, is not surprising when we remember that the 
clergy then possessed" all the culture and refinement of the 
age. And so, not only in the palatium was there a large 
body of clergy called chaplains, who, under the archchaplain 
or chancellor, performed a great deal of the general admin- 
istration, but even throughout the scattered units of the em- 
pire, ecclesiastics shared in all important civil and legal busi- 
ness. Nor w^as this arrangement purely one-sided, for the 
state was allowed to help in the administration of the affairs 
of the Church. The election of bishops, the holding of 
synods and carrying out of their decrees, the institution of 



58 THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY 

diocesan visitations — all these were considered to be matters 
pertaining to the jurisdiction of the Church as well as of the 
state. 

Charlemagne as a soldier and as a statesman well deserves 
the title of Great. But he is deserving of another kind of 
interest, on account of the refinement and wide liberality of 
his tastes. 

79. Patronage of Learning. — He formed his court 
into a palace-school called " Schola Palatina," and to this 
school he drew many of the most renowned scholars of the age. 
Among these were Peter of Pisa, Paul the deacon of the Ab- 
bey of Monte Casino, and above all, the great English Al- 
cuin, formerly head master of the school of York. Many 
scientific treatises and literary writings testify to the ability 
of the scholars of these schools, and to this period of intel- 
lectual activity we owe some of the best Latin Hymns, such 
as the " Crudelis Herodes," written for the feast of Holy 
Innocents, " Veni Creator Spiritus," and others. In all these 
schools Latin was studied with great zeal, and great attention 
was paid to the classic authors. The insistence which they 
placed on the necessity of good Latin made all the more per- 
ceptible the difference between the written and spoken Latin, 
so that the latter soon became a distinct dialect of its own, 
which eventually developed into modern French. 

Besides science and literature, Charles also took a keen in- 
terest in music. Priests were invited over from Italy to give 
lessons in singing, and the Organ was for the first time intro- 
duced into Gaul. 

Architecture also received a fresh impetus during the reign 
of Charlemagne. 

Charles was also interested in building. He built great 
palaces for himself at Aachen, Maintz and Nymeguen. He 
also erected many beautiful churches, the most noteworthy 



DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE 



59 



being the church of Aachen, in which he was buried. Most 
of the architects of these buildings were Itahans, and were 
invited over from Italy. 




The Cathedral at Aachen (Aix-La-Chapelle). The round part of the structure was 
built by Charlemagne who was buried directly beneath the dome. The rest of the 
cathedral, in the Gothic style of architecture, was added in the fourteenth century. 



The death of Charlemagne in 814 ended one of the most 
remarkable reigns of history. He not only founded a mighty 
empire, and extended in many ways the domain and influence 



6o THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY 

of the Church, but he gave a lasting impetus to the culture of 
learning and art, and the spread of civilization. 

80, Conquest of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons. — Between 
the years 449 and 577, the Britons, who were the ancient in- 
habitants of England, were driven from their ancient home 
by certain tribes from Germany, chief among whom were the 
Saxons. These tribes brought over with them all their an- 
cient political institutions and in a few years set up a number 
of kingdoms, each governed by its own king and Witan. By 
degrees, however, three out of these several kingdoms acquired 
the first position — they were, the kingdon of Northumbria 
in the north, the kingdom of Mercia in the centre, and the 
kingdom of Wessex in the south. Fierce wars broke out be- 
tween the three kingdoms, each striving in turn to become ih^ 
supreme power in England. At first Northumbria took th& 
lead. Its kings Aethelric, Aethelfrith, Edwin, Oswald and.- 
Oswi were great soldiers and strong rulers, and not only kept 
Mercia in check, but also extended the Northumbrian borders 
both west and north. Northumbria also was the first to ac- 
cept Christianity after the conversion of Kent, and became 
famous for its saintly bishops and such learned scholars as 
Venerable Bede and St. Alcuin of York. But by the year 
685 the power of Northumbria had declined, and Mercia, un- 
der its two able kings, Penda and Offa, took the lead. The 
triumph of Mercia, however, was even more shortlived than 
that of Northumbria. It became weakened by intestine 
strife, and in 828 Egbert of Kent, hitherto an exile at the 
court of Charlemagne, saw that the hour had come. Rapidly 
marching northward, he asserted the supremacy of the south- 
ern kingdom of Wessex over both Mercia and Northumbria 
so that now the king of Wessex became virtually the king of 
all England. The warring Saxon kingdoms were at last 
united and the English nation established. 



TOPICAL SUMMARY 6l 



TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Decay of the Merovingian dynasty — Importance of the reign 
of Dagobert — Mayors of the palace — Rivalry between Neus- 
tria and Austrasia — Conquests made by Pippin I and the con- 
versions that followed — Charles Martel conquers the Saracens 
— Pippin II and his alliance with the papacy — Coronation of 
Pippin II as king of the Franks — Personality and character of 
Charlemagne — Charlemagne's conquests — Charlemagne 
crowned emperor by Pope Ixo III — Meaning of the Holy 
Roman Empire under Charlemagne — Extent and influence of 
Charlemagne's empire — Charlemagne's domestic policy — Pub- 
lic meetings of the free-men — His system of local government — 
Charlemagne's connection with the church — The Schola Pala- 
tina — Charlemagne's patronage of learning and arts. Conquest 
of England by the Saxons — The Heptarchy becomes three 
great rival kingdoms. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

EiNHARD, Life of Charlemagne; Nombert, History of Charles the Great; 
West, Alcuiii and the Rise of the Christian Schools; Bryce, Holy Ro- 
vian Empire; Hodgkin, Charles the Great; Bede, Ecclesiastical History of 
England; Kitchin, History of France; Emerton, Medieval Europe; Rob- 
inson, Readings in European History; Mullinger, Schools of Charles 
the Great; Green, A Short History of the English People. 



CHAPTER VI 

CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY CONTINUED 

8i. Reign of Louis the Pious. — Charlemagne had only- 
one son, Lonis, snrnamed the Pious, on account of his be- 
nevolent disposition. The year before Charlemagne died, 
Louis was made colleague in the empire and on Charle- 
magne's death in 814, he at once succeeded to the throne. 

The reign of Louis illustrates one of the many general 
tendencies that go to the formation of history. A great or- 
ganization that is the result not of gradual growth of circum- 
stances but of the individual work of some great genius, fre- 
quently dissolves when the genius that has created it has 
passed away. What took place on the death of Charlemagne 
is an example of this : Louis was utterly destitute of the 
commanding qualities of his energetic father, and it was not 
long before the disintegrating forces of different races, lan- 
guages, and customs began to show themselves. Moreover, 
the Germans, who constituted the main element of the empire, 
were for the most part factious and turbulent soldiers, i.nd 
were opposed to the continuance of any authority. The main 
interest of the reign of Louis centres in his relations with the 
Church. Pope Stephen IV, who succeeded Pope Leo III, set 
out for France and crowned Louis at Rheims. The newlv- 
crowned emperor then did his best to further the interests of 
the Church, by correcting the many abuses that had crepi in, 
and by encouraging the institutions that now seemed most 
helpful for this purpose. 

82. The Canonical Life. — Already in Charlemagne's reign. 
Bishop Chrodegang of Metz, seeing the dangers to which 

63 



64 CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY— CONTINUED 

secular priests were subject, tried to establish among his 
clergy the canonical life. Ecclesiastics who lead this kind of 
life dwelt under the immediate supervision of the bishop, and 
led the common life, reciting their office in choir, eating in 
the same dining-room and sleeping in the same dormitory. 
Such communities were found not only in Cathedral churches, 
but also in the larger parishes, and this gave rise to collegiate 
churches. It was evident that the clergy, who thus lived in 
communities, w^ere likely to be more devoted to their duties, 
and were safer from the dangers arising from contact with 
the world, than if they were living singly. 

83. The Western Benedictines. — Besides the canonical 
life there was also the religious life, and this became, even in 
a higher degree, the great mainstay of the discipline and fer- 
vor of the Church. During the middle ages all great move- 
ments of reform had some connection with the religious 
orders. We have seen how in Italy, at the time of Pope 
Gregory the Great, St. Benedict of Nursia founded the great 
order of Western Benedictines, and now about two centuries 
later, another St. Benedict, the St. Benedict of Aniane, intro- 
duced a similar reform into France. Louis the Pious had 
such confidence in him that he entrusted to his supervision all 
the convents of Western France. The rule adopted by St. 
Benedict was substantially the same as that of St. Benedict of 
Nursia, only that it was supplemented here and there in order 
to meet the altered needs of time and locality. This combina- 
tion of the old rule and the supplementary regulations became 
known as the " Concordia Regularium," and soon acquired 
almost as much fame as the original rule of St. Benedict of 
Nursia. 

84. Division of the Carlovingian Empire. — In the mean- 
time, the political condition of the empire was far from satis- 



TREATY OF VERDUN 65 

factory. The elements that composed it were far too differ- 
ent in character, and even during the reign of Louis the Pious, 
there were signs of pohtical disintegration. When Louis 
died in 840, open war at once broke out. Louis had divided 
the empire among his three sons Lothair, Charles, and Louis. 
Lothair, being the eldest, soon claimed the whole of his 
father's possessions, but Charles and Louis asserted that ac- 
cording to the principles of Prankish tradition the empire 
ought to be divided equally. In the struggle that ensued, 
Charles relied for support on Prance, while Louis turned for 
aid to Bavaria. At the battle of Fontenay near Auxerre, 
Lothair was defeated, and had to withdraw to Aachen. A 
little later he suffered another defeat, and seeing it was bet- 
ter to sacrifice the whole in order to make sure of a part, he 
offered to come to terms and to make some amicable division 
of the empire. Li 843, at Verdun, was signed the famous 
treaty of partition. By this treaty Lothair as emperor was 
permitted to have his share in such a way as to secure him- 
self in possession of the two capitals Aachen and Rome. He 
accordingly acquired a long strip of territory extending from 
the North Sea to Italy, the upper part of it being bounded on 
the left by the Rhone and the Saone, and on the right by the 
Rhine, though these rivers must not be taken as the exact 
frontiers. All the territory west of this strip w'as allotted to 
Charles, while the territory to the east went to Louis. 

C5. Results of the Treaty of Verdun, — The treaty of Ver- 
dun seemed the death-blow to the unity of the empire, but 
from another point of view it brought almost uncalculable 
benefit to the peoples of Purope. The western and the east- 
ern divisions became respectively Prance and Germany. It 
^^ as the treaty of Verdun that allowed each of these two na- 
ti()ns to start on its own course of development. Prance with 
its romance tongue, its brilliant imagination, and precise sub- 



66 CARLOriXGIAN DYXASTY— COXTl.WED 

tlety of thougrht. Germany with its vigorous acx-^nts and ro- 
bust character and thoroughness — both received their start 
from this memorable treaty of ^3. 

So. Alter History df the Middle Kingdom. — The division 
of the middle kingdom also occupied a very important place 
in after European politics. Not only did it cause continual 
strife between France and Germany, who were lx>th anxious 
to absorb it into their own territories, but the upper part 
soon began to split up into important duchies, each with an 
eventful history of its own. In the southern part there be- 
gan to reigrn king's of Burgimdy. First there was the king- 
dom of Franco-Turan Burgundy, including the southern part 
of Savoy, and a part of Switzerland, then there was the king- 
dom of Cis-Juran Burgundy, including the northern part of 
Savoy and also part of Switzerland. Finally these two king- 
doms were united together to form a new kingdom of Bur- 
gn^mdy, or Aries, which, with the exception of the Swiss por- 
tion, gradually became annexed to France. The northern 
portion of the middle kingdom went by the name of Lor- 
raine, and soon divided into L'pper and Lower Lorraine, or 
Brabant. In the early stages of existence. Upper Lorraine 
belonged to Germany, but in the seventeenth century- it was 
annexeil by France, which, however, had to cede a portion of 
it to Germany after the war of 1871. 

S7. Weakening of the Empire, — But however important 
the treaty of \'erdun may have been in determining the after 
history- of Europe, it served to emphasize the weakness of the 
empire as a whole. The little duchies and small provinces 
that were as many separate kingdoms began to assert ac- 
tively their own local independence. Even kings over limited 
areas found it extremely diffiailt to assert any central au- 
thoritv. In those times good roads were an absolute neces- 



THE NORTHMEN 67 

sily for kccpin;:^ np llic iicrcssary coinmunicatiV^n Ijctvveen the 
center of ^^'■(n'eniinent aiul llic cjtitlyin^ jjarts, and wliat ^ood 
roads had been constructerl Ijy the Komans harl unfortunately 
been alUnved to decay. I'hen, ag'ain, in the middle a^es the 
kin^s had to contenrl aj:^ainst the difficulties arising from 
scarcity of money. Without a well-filled treasury they could 
scarcely maintain an efficient civil service, or keep up a large 
standing army in order to repress the insubordination of lo- 
cal magnates. 

88. Foreign Invaders. — 'Jhcse causes of disintegration 
were sufficiently powerful in themselves, and just at the 
critical time there appeared anr^lier flanger of an external 
kind. This was the invasions of fierce anrl irresistible bar- 
barians. 1^^-rjm the south came the Saracens, who terrorized 
southern Italy and h'rance; frr;m the east came the Slavs and 
Hungarians, who were continually harassing the German 
territories, and from the north came the Northmen and the 
Danes. Of all the invaders these were the most terrible. 
The cause of their migration seems to have been j^artly that 
which jM-oduced the great migrations in Europe itself. The 
rudeness of the climate and .scantiness of the soil, combined 
with increasing population, drove them to seek for places 
where they might enjoy a more easy and toleraljle existence. 
Also a political process was going on that tended in the same 
direction. Great kingdoms were rising and threatening to 
take the place oi the smaller kingdoms, each governed by its 
jarl. The people of these smaller kingdoms therefore eagerly 
sought for new homes where they might enjoy their old local 
independence. 

89. Settlements of the Northmen. — Norway lead the way, 
and soon the little ships of the bold Norwegian pirates 
scoured the remotest seas. The Shetland islands, situated to 



68 CARLOVINGIAX DYNASTY— COXTIXUED 

the north of Scotland and Iceland with its volcanoes and 
glaciers were the first halting places of these restive pil- 
grims. Thev next traveled farther to the west, and dis- 
covered Greenland, a name supposed to have been given this 
land in order to attract settlers from Iceland. Others again 
went to the North American continent, which from its fer- 
tilitv was called Vineland. And wherever they went they 
seem to have retained their old traditions of pett^y isolated 
kingdoms, each enjoying absolute independence of the rest. 

It was not long before other and more favored spots at- 
tracted swarms of these adventurers. Those went to the ex- 
treme north of Scotland, called Sutherland, from the North- 
man's point of view. Thence they extended their way down 
the southwest of Scotland, along the \\'elsh coast, even as 
far as the fiords of Pembrokeshire. No country seems to 
have been safe from their ravages. Gliding in their light 
boats up the Seine and Loire, Garonne and Rhone, they 
spread terror wherever they went. Even Paris at one time 
seemed likely to fall into their hands. Of the French settle- 
ments perhaps the most famous was that of Normandy, made 
into a duchy by Rollo, who was its first duke. But even the 
southern parts of Europe were not considered too remote. 
Spain was attacked and the fair cities of Italy were laid 
waste. 

Another stream of migration started from Sweden. The 
leader was Rurik who became the reputed founder of the 
Russian monarchy. 

go. Results of these Invasions. — These invasions seemed to 
put back civilization by at least two hundred years. The 
bonds of society were loosened, and complete anarchy would 
have destroyed entirely the work of Charlemagne, were it not 
for certain forces that seemed to have been providentially 
brought into existence for the salvation of Europe. 



ALFRED THE GREAT 69 

91. England; Reign of King Alfred. — The period roughly 
co\-ered h\ the ninth century saw the ascendancy of the house 
of W'essex, and a condition of constant warfare with North- 
men and Danes. The most important king over Wessex dur- 
ing this period was Alfred, surnamed the Great. He was cel- 
ebrated as a statesman, as a writer, and as a general. As ad- 
ministrator, he enforced submission to the legal jurisdiction of 
the local courts, supervised the conduct of officials both secular 
and lay. compiled a code of laws, and rebuilt schools and 
monasteries. As a writer, his chief works were the transla- 
tion of the Ecclesiastical History of England by Bede, inter- 
spersed with reflections of his own, so that history now be- 
comes no longer a mere chronological work, but a continuous 
literary narrative. He also wrote a translation of the " Con- 
solation of Philosophy" by Boethius, and of the "Pastoral 
Care " by Pope Gregory. Alfred was also a soldier, and after 
a series of great battles succeeded in preventing the Danes 
from obtaining the complete conquest of England. His most 
conspicuous means of defense was the organization of the 
national militia, by which one-half of each shire was always in 
readiness for military service, and his orginazation of an 
English fleet with ships of improved model — so that Alfred 
has been styled by some the " Father of the English Navy." 
However, in spite of Alfred's genius and activity, he did not 
succeed in expelling the Danes altogether. By the peace of 
V>>dmore (878) the northern and eastern parts — about one-^ 
half of England were left to the Danes, who in their gov- 
ernment used their own laws and institutions. This dis- 
trict was called the Danelagh (Dane Law), and to this day 
certain names both common and proper, remind one of this 
Danish occupation. The general result of these Danish in- 
vasions and settlements was to add fresh vigor and virility 
to the Saxons of Britain and to intensify rather than to destroy 
the old English political and legal institutions; for both the 



70 CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY— CONTINUED 

invaders and the invaded were of one blood, and their social 
order and customs were inherited from the same parent in- 
stitutions. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Immediate successors of Charlemagne — Character of the 
reign of Louis the Pious — His relations with the Church — 
Founding of canonical congregations — Monasticism reformed 
by St. Benedict of Aniane — Division of the empire between 
the three sons of Louis the Pious — Treaty of Verdun and 
its importance — Future history and divisions of the middle 
kingdom — Empire attacked by savage invaders — Causes of the 
wanderings of the Northmen and Danes — Countries explored 
or visited by the Northmen — Results of these invasions — Su- 
premacy of the kingdom of Wessex — Importance of the reign 
of Alfred the Great — Alfred as administrator, writer, and sol- 
dier — His organization of the army and of the fleet — Treaty 
of Wedmore with the Danes — Results on England of the Dan- 
ish invasions. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Henderson, Germany; Emerton, Medieval Europe; Adams, Civilhation ; 
DuRUY, Middle Ages; Church, Beginning of Middle Ages; Boyesen, TJie 
Study of Norzuay; Sharon Turner, History of the Anglo Saxons; 
Kemble, Saxons in England; Henderson, Historical Documents; Chaillis, 
The Viking Age; Keary, Vikings in Western Christendom; Hughes, 
Alfred the Great; Plummer, Alfred the Great. 



CHAPTER VII 

FEUDALISM AND MONASTICISM 

92. Two Saving Forces. — 'I'he j)()litical disinteg'ralion <>f 
tlic luiipire, and the invasions of the Danes seriously threat- 
ened tlie ^■ery existence of European civiHzation. lUit in the 
sn])renie hour of need there appeared certain forces that not 
only undid in great measure the lun'(^c wrought l)y the Danes, 
but also compensated to a considerable extent for the internal 
damage wrought by political disunion and petty strife. 

These forces were feudalism and monasticism. I'^eudalism 
furnished society with a means of defense against foreign 
invaders, and did away with political anarchy, while monas- 
ticism kept alixe the light of learning, and maintained those 
spiritual ties of brotherhood upon which society so much de- 
pends. 

93. The Nature of Feudalism. — Eeudalism may be de- 
fined as a system of society based on land tenure. In its com- 
\-)\ete form it combines political rights with ownership of land 
on a large scale. In other words, a man is a judge, an ad- 
ministrator or a general only because he happens to have a 
certain f|uantity of land. In more general terms feudalism 
may be defined as a system of political organization connected 
with tenure of land and obligation of military service. Thus 
the main peculiarity of feudalism is that land was held bv its 
owner on condition of his performing certain duties, especially 
duties of a military nature. The person to whom these duties 
had to be rendered might be the sovereign or he might be some 
one in subjection to the sovereign. 

The origin of feudalism is rather obscure. Already in the 

72 



FEUDAL INSTITCTlOyS 73 

later times of the Roman Empire there had existed a practice 
of granting out portions of land to small tenants on fulfilment 
of certain conditions. These tenants were tied to the soil, but 
so long as they fulfilled the required conditions, they could not 
be driven away from their holdings. Then we have also seen 
how among the Germans the young warriors pledged their 
fidelity to some popular chieftain who in turn gave to them 
the support of his patronage and protection. These things, 
namely, the hokling- of land on the fulfilment of certain obli- 
gations, and the relationship between a warrior and his chief- 
tain, when existing separately were not sufficient to constitute 
feudalism, but when they were combined tlie result was 
feudalism. 

94. The Elements of Feudalism. — An analysis of the na- 
ture of feudalism will re\eal its three principal elements. 

First, the personal element, or vassalage. This was the 
relation existing" between the dependent and his lord. In 
order to receive protection from some one more powerful than 
himself a man would commend himself to the protection of 
some lord. A person who thus " commended himself " be- 
came a vassal. This process of commendation consisted in 
the oath of homage and fealty, by which the dependent prom- 
ised to be the vassal of his lord, and to be faithful to him. 

Secondly, the real element, or benefice. This consisted of 
some piece of land that was rented out to the vassal in return 
for personal service. In the infancy of feudalism it is prob- 
able that the vassal was bound to attend his lord in war for 
any length of time that his services might be required. But 
in time the vassal gradually assumed a more independent po- 
sition, and the period and nature of the service came to be 
strictly defined either by law or custom. Besides military 
service, the vassal might be called on to perform other duties ; 
such as sitting in court with the other vassals in order to try 



74 FEUDALISM AND MONASTICISM 

his fellow vassals, and to make certain money payments. 
Three of these payments were almost universal and were 
called ordinary aids : to ransom his lord's person from cap- 
tivity, to provide a dowry for the marriage of the lord's eld- 
est daughter, and to pay toward the expense of knighting the 
lord's eldest son. 

The third political element of fuedalism was immunity. 
Already in Anglo-Saxon times the king granted out what was 
called sac and soc, by which was meant that certain estates 
were exempted from the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts. 
Also under the Merovingian kings, certain grants of land 
were declared free from the obligation of market and custom 
duties. Later on, a grant of land made by a king or a very 
powerful lord was accompanied with an express grant of ju- 
risdiction, both civil and criminal, over his immediate tenants. 

95. Concrete Elements of Feudalism. — These three ele- 
ments convey some general abstract idea of the system of 
feudalism, but there are certain concrete details that may serve 
perhaps better than anything else to form a living picture of 
what feudalism really meant for that society where it was gen- 
erally adopted. The chief institutions of feudalism are the 
noble, the tournament and the castle. 

The Noble in medieval times was a holder of land for 
which he rendered services that were not usually performed 
by the low^er classes of society. He was also supposed to be 
possessed of substantial means. The nobles were of various 
grades. There were dukes, counts marquises, and simple 
knights. But there was not that definite rank assigned to each, 
such as we find in our own times. In general, we may say that 
those who held lands directly from the king belonged to the 
highest rank, while at the bottom of the hierarchy of nobles 
stood the knight. There was an almost immeasurable dififer- 
ence between the knight and the person who was outside the 



MEinill'AL INSTITUTIONS 75 

ranks of the nobility. The knight was generally a person of 
gentle birth, and he had to undergo some sort of an appren- 
ticeship as page to some superior lord before he could receive 
the honor of knighthood. He was also supposed to be bound 
by a high code of honor and manly virtue. 
^ The Tournament was a species of combat in which the 
combatants fought not necessarily out of enmity or to wipe off 
jsome stain of disgrace, but merely to exhibit their own per- 
sonal prowess. The tournament was usually held at the invita- 
tion of some prince. Competitors were invited from distant 
lands. The game was regulated by most minute rules, and the 
highest personages in the land would preside and distribute the 
prizes. Owing to the frequency Ayith which hatreds and strifes 
occured during these games, and the degrading influence they 
were supposed to exert on the spectator, the Church, from 
the middle of the twelfth to the middle of the thirteenth cen- 
tury, did her best to stop these spectacular exhibitions. She 
severly forbade any person to engage in them under pain of 
excommunication, and denial of Christian burial to such as 
lost their lives in the contest. 

The Castle was a walled enclosure with a tower or towers 
strongly constructed so as to serve as a place of safety. Round 
the castle there was generally a ditch or moat. The thick and 
massive walls surrounding the castle were furnished with small 
projecting towers at th.e top called bastions. The entrance 
gate was flanked by two tov^ers. .\11 the doors, windows and 
staircases were generally very small and narrow. The strong- 
est part of the castle was the donjon, or keep, which in Anglo- 
Saxon castles was attached to the walls, but in Norman castles 
was often separate from the rest of the structure. Such build- 
ings often served as places of defense to the whole country in 
the vicinity. Little towns and villages would cluster for protec- 
tion round the castle, whose owner in return sometimes en- 
joyed considerable jurisdiction. 



y6 FEUDALISM AND MONASTIC ISM 

Another result of feudalism was the formation of cavalry; 
not that this was any new thing, hut under the influence of 
feudalism it assumed a new and very strategic importance. 
Most of the tournaments were fought on horseback, and the 
strength and agility of the horse, as well as the skill of the 
rider, were ^^•onderfully de\-eloped l)y constant exercise. 

96. Benefits of Feudalism. — A consideration, however 
brief, of the spirit of feudalism and the institutions to which 
it gave rise will soon show that scarcely anything else could 
have been so well adapted to meet the confusion and danger of 
the troublous times of the ninth and tenth centuries. The 
usual ties of authority and social concord were rapidly weaken- 
ing, and for these feudalism substituted new ties that brought 
together every member of society, the highest and the lowest. 
0\'er all was the king', the chief land-owner, and as such, the 
chief possessor of jurisdiction; under him were the more im- 
portant tenants, bound to him by their oaths of fidelity and 
homage; then under these tenants again were sub-tenants 
bound to their immediate lord by ties equally stringent. Even 
the Church was not outside this hierarchy, for the great 
majority of church lands were granted to ecclesiastics on con- 
dition of their performing" spiritual services for those who 
thus became their over-lords and protectors. Society was thus 
knit firmly together by the uni\'ersal and indissoluble ties 
which were furnished by feudalism. But feudalism did more 
than this. It furnished the material means of self-defense. 
When barbarian invaders were scouring the land in every di-' 
rection it became a matter of supreme necessity that through- 
out the country there should be certain strongholds where 
the advance of the enemy might be firmly withstood, and the 
mediaeval castle thus fulfilled a very important function. At 
the same time it was necessary to follow or to pursue and 
harass the enemv, much in the same wav as the Boers harassed 



78 FEUDALISM AND MONASTICISM 

the invading English. Here the feudal cavalry did very im- 
portant service. It is not too much to say that feudalism 
saved society both from its own disorders and from the hos- 
tile attacks of external aggressors. 

97. Monasticism. — But feudalism was not the only safe- 
guard of society. There was another that acted rather on the 
mind and soul of society, that prevented society from lapsing 
into the mental darkness of barbarism and at the same time 
kept alive those interior virtues upon which, more than any- 
thing else, depend the existence and stability of society. This 
second safeguard was monasticism, which asserted itself in 
the celebrated Cluniac reform. 

98. Decline of the Old Orders. — The reform of Benedict 
of Aniane during the early Carlovingian period had un- 
fortunately been followed by a reaction. Great numbers of 
pastors had fallen off from the high ideals of their profession 
and were leading worldly lives. The decrees of the Pontiffs 
against certain clerical transgressors sufficiently testify to the 
evils of the times. Thus, although as the historian Hase ad- 
mits, there were still many ecclesiastics eminent for their vir- 
tue, yet there were others who stood very much in need of a 
reform, and the necessary impetus in this direction was given 
by the Cluniac movement of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth 
centuries. 

99. Rise of the Monks of Cluny. — The monastery of Cluny 
was founded by Duke William of Acquitaine in 910. Under 
the spiritual guidance of Berno, their first superior, the monks 
of Cluny soon became famous for their piety and learning. In 
their silence, their choral recital of the canonical hours, in their 
rigorous penances, they were a shining beacon to the other re- 
ligious institutions of the period. 



THE CLUNIAC REFORM 



79 



The Cluniac reform differed in various ways from previous 
movements of a like nature. 

First of all, the monks were more completely dependent 







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The Monastery of Cluny, at Cluny, 26 miles southwest of Chelous-sur-Saone. A large 
part of this splendid abbey was destroyed in 1789 when the monks were driven out. 



upon the Holy See. To some extent such subjection has always 
been held necessary if a community wishes to acquire the stat- 
us of a religious body. But previous to the Cluniac movement 
the bishop had also enjoyed a certain amount of jurisdiction, 



8o FEUDALISM AND MOXASTICISM 

For example, he could send the parish priest to perform certain 
duties in the monastery, or he could visit the monastery in or- 
der to c(jrrect certain al)uses. But the monks of Cluu}- were 
declared hv I 'ope Alexander II, to be entirely exempt from 
episcopal jurisdiction and this privilege was extended to all the 
foundations connected with Cluny. 

Second, its organic formation differed considerably from 
the other Benedictine institutions that had preceded it; hither- 
to, monastic institutions had lived an independent life of their 
own, quite separate from any parent community to which they 
owed their existence. This was a disadvantage. Experience 
shows that no matter how pious the founder of an order may 
be, or how great the zeal and enthusiasm of its early follow- 
ers, a reaction sooner or later sets in, and not even an Apos- 
tolic Visitor is always able to correct the abuses that follow. 
But Cluny was furnished with an excellent safeguard in this 
particular. The daughter communities of the abbey of Cluny 
\\ ere made strictly dependent up(jn their Burgundian parent. 
All local self-g"o\-ernment was delegated to a prior, appointed 
by tlie abbot, to whom he was held responsible. By this ar- 
rangement a unit}' of discipline and co-operative action were 
secured and abuses in any of the daughter communities could 
be corrected by the parent house. 

100. The Effects of the Cluniac Movement were consid- 
erable and far reaching. It tightened the bonds of unity be- 
tween the different nations of Christendom. Monasteries re- 
ceived postulants from all parts of the world, and kings would 
often benefit religious foundations in far distant lands. One 
instance of this we find in the rich presents made by the king 
of Castile to the abbey of Cluny. 

The Cluniac monastery w.is also a house t»f intellectual life. 
All abbots of Cluny. from .St. 0(1(^ to Peter the Venerable 
were distinguished for their l<)\e of literature and zeal for ed- 



ARCHBISHOP DUN ST AN 8 1 

iication while from the " Customs " of Cluiiy arranged by the 
holy monk Udahc we gather that what is now done by the poor 
schools of the state was then done by the monks of Cluny. 

But perhaps the crowning merit of the Cluniac movement 
was that it helped the pope in his herculean task of reforming 
the clergy, and through them the laity. For at a time when 
the pope in the performance of this task was abandoned by 
so many of the episcopate and lower clergy, the monks of 
Cluny stood forth valiantly as the champions of reform. 

loi. Consolidation of England Under Archbishop Dun- 
stan. — The tenth century saw the completion of the Anglo- 
Saxon kingdom under the firm guidance of the first ecclesias- 
tical statesman that figures on the pages of English History. 
This was Archbishop Dunstan. the minister of King Eadgar. 
His administration was national rather than provincial. Both 
Englishman and Dane were treated alike and admitted to the 
highest offices of state. Dunstan was also careful to revixe 
education and to impro\e the zeal and sanctity of the clergy. 
Under his auspices communities of the new Cluniac form of 
Benedictinism were introduced into England. England also 
progressed from the commercial point of view. She entered 
into wider negotiations with foreign countries, and now for- 
eign ships might be seen sailing up the Thames and merchants 
from distant parts might be seen bargaining in the streets of 
London. 

TOPICAL SUMIMARY. 

Feudalism defined and described — Origin of Feudalism — 
Chief elements of feudalism — \'assalage — Benefice — Immuni- 
ty — Important institutions of Feudalism — Aristocracy of feu- 
dalism — Different kinds of knighthood — Tournament — Castle 
— Cavalry — New political ties introduced by feudalism — 
Means of defence furnished by feudalism against the Danes — 
Monasticism the second saving element of society — Origin of 
the Cluniac movement — Exemption of the Cluniac monks from 



82 FEUDALISM AND MONASTICISM 

episcopal jurisdiction — Daughter communities made dependent 
upon the parent community — Effects of the Cluniac reform 
— Administration of Archbishop Dunstan — Monasticism intro- 
duced into England — Foreign trade of England widely ex- 
tended. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Emerton, Introduction to Middle Ages, Chapter XVI; Seignobos, 
Feudal Regime; Tout, Empire and Papacy; Aluy, Lectures on Feudalism; 
LucHAiRE, Manual dcs Institutions Francoises; Cheyney, Introduction to 
the Industrial and Social Life of England; Seebohm, English Village 
Community; Andrews, The Old English Manor; Lacroix, Military and 
Religious Life; Fisher, History of the Christian Church; Stevens, Con- 
tinuation of Dugdale's Monasticism ; Alzog, Church History; Green, 
History of England, page 55 to 6j ; also Acta Sanctorum of the Bollan- 
dists, torn IV, 344-384; Chalmers, Biographical Dictionary. 



CHAPTER VIII 

PARALLEL DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE AND GERMANY 

102. Decay of the Carlovingian Empire. — We have seen 
that the treaty of Verdun meant the disintegration of the 
empire and the weakening of the Carlovingian house. It was 
not long- before the process reached the critical stage. The 
division that had fallen to Lothair containing the two capitals, 
Aachen and Rome, soon divided into the following branches : 
Upper and Lower Lorraine in the north, the kingdom of 
Burgundy lower down, and in the south the kingdom 
of Italy — all these were governed by feeble kings and 
were reduced to a wretched condition by anarchy and 
petty local oppression. In France and in Germany also there 
Mrere disunion and strife, local magnates waxing strong 
against the central authority of the king. Only once indeed 
did there appear to be some restoration of the old Carlovingian 
power. This was during the reign of Charles the Fat, son of 
Louis of Germany. In default of other rightful heirs, he was 
crowned emperor in 88 1, and in 885 became king of France. 
Thus, for a short time, the whole of the old Carlo\ingian Em- 
pire, with the exception of Provence, a little government in 
southeastern France, became united under one Carlovingian 
sovereign. But Charles the Fat proved an incapaljle ruler. 
When the Danes invaded Paris he bribed them to transfer 
their attack elsewhere, and so great was the indignation of 
his nobles that he was deposed in 887. 

This meant the sudden disruption of the empire. Instead of 
three kingdoms there now appeared seven: namely. Italy. 
Germany, Lorraine, France, Navarre, Cis-Juran and Trans- 
Juran Burgundy. But amidst this debris of fallen kingdoms, 

83 



84 r.lRALLEL DEJ-ELOPMEXT OF FRANCE AND GERMANY 

there might be seen in France and Germany certain construct- 
ive elements which in different ways and at different periods 
were to build up two powerful nations. 

103. Rise of Hugh Capet. — The relations between Hugh 
tlie Nassal count of Paris, and Louis IV now began to assume 
a striking resemblance to the relations between the mayor of 
the palace and the decaying Merovingian monarchs. In both 
cases the result was the same, and in both cases it was the 
pope who gave the signal for the revolution. Pope Silvester 
II declared that " he who is king in deeds and in fact should 
also be king in title." 

The real power had indeed drifted entirely into the hands 
of Hugh. Not indeed that this was any fault of Louis. Louis 
had shown himself an able ruler, and had displayed consid- 
erable military ability. It was the new system of feudalism 
that was responsible for the change. Hugh, the duke of the 
French, was by far the most powerful landowner in the king- 
dom, and as we have already seen, the feudal landowner as 
such enjoyed political jurisdiction. 

104. Hugh Helped by the Church. — Besides feudal sup- 
port there was also the support of the Church. Not only the 
pope, but also the French bishops under Archbishop Adalberon 
of Rheims were on the side of Hugh Capet. There were also 
the great ecclesiastical fiefs, some of the most influential be- 
ing situated in Normandy. All these were naturally devoted 
to Hugh Capet. 

One might easily fall into the temptation of exaggerating 
Hugh's position. In fact he was recognized as king only bv 
a part of France. In the south he had great difificulty in 
asserting his claims. In Aquitaine, the decrees ran " until 
there should be a king" ; nor was he recognized in Poitou and 
Brittany. But the accession of Hugh is important as starting 



riiE PRi-xcii I'h'orixciis 85 

a form uf dynastic goxerniiient that was t(j rule I'rance for 
many centtiries. 

105. The Different Provinces of France. — In order to qain 
a clear idea of the exact position of lln^h lapet. and in order 
to understand frequent geoL^raphical allusions it will he help- 
ful if we consider the principal provinces of l-'rance at that 
time, starting from the northeast. 

Normandy was situated in the extreme northeast of France, 
n^he latter Carlovingian kings had allowed the Northmen to 
settle on this territory on con'dition that Roller, their leader, 
should embrace Christianity. The whole country had become 
considerably Christianized, and at the time of Hugh there 
were some important ecclesiastical benefices that tended to up- 
hold the influence of the king. One (hike. William of Xor- 
mandy. became famous as conqueror and king of England. 

Flanders was the district lying between the rixers Somme 
and Scheldt. Part of it was dependent upon the empire, and 
part of it upon France. It soon Ijecame the nest of important 
towns such as Cdient and l^)ruges. These (nved their origin 
to the Scandinavian invasions that f<Trced the ])eople to cluster 
together for protection, l-'landers, owing to its position and 
fertile soil, soon became remarkable for its commerce and 
manufactures. 

Brittany is that part of France which together with the Span- 
ish coast encloses the Bay of Biscay. It contains a very strong 
Celtic element. As early as 284 some of the Britons in 
England pursued by the Saxons went over to Brittanv, and 
these, as well as later migrations gave the proxince its name. 
For some time Brittany was under Normandy, but after the 
Xormans were dri\-en r)ut. it fell imder the kn-dship of the 
French kings, but it did not become a part of the French 
monarchy till the thirteenth centurv. 

Maine and Anjou. — These two countships alst^ play an im- 



86 PARALLEL DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE AND GERMANY 

portant part in history. Maine, whose chief town was Le 
Mans, lay between Normandy and Anjou, which were heredi- 
tary enemies. Like most buffer states it fell a prey to one of 
the contending parties and in 1063 was conquered by the 
Duke of Normandy. Later it was united with Anjou. The 
countship of Anjou (its capital was Angers) became famous 
for giving to England a line of able kings called the Angevin 
Dynasty, the most prominent of whom was Henry IL 

Blois and Champagne. — These were also two countships 
which though situated far apart were connected by marriage. 
Champagne is noted for its two towns of Troyes and Rheims. 
The former was important for its trade and is said to have 
given its name to Troy weight, while the latter was already 
known as a famous ecclesiastical centre. The house of Blois 
also gave to England a king in the person of Count Stephen. 

The southern provinces of France afford rather a striking 
contrast to the northern provinces. In the southern prov- 
inces, the Romance element prevailed and showed itself not 
only in the character but also in the smoother speech of the 
inhabitants — their dialect being called the langue d'oc in 
contradistinction to the harsher dialect of the northern called 
the langue d'oui. Political differences also accompanied the 
racial differences. In the south, the feudal system lasted 
longest and was constantly opposed to the centralizing mo- 
narchical power of the north. 

Burgundy was situated to the southwest of France. The 
various territories covered by this name have already been 
pointed out. In building up the power of the Capetian kings, 
Burgundy occupied very nearly the same position as Nor- 
mandy. It contained a great many religious benefices whose 
powerful influence tended to curtail the power of the dukes 
and to increase the power of the king. 

Aquitaine was situated between the rivers Loire and Ga- 
ronne. The dukes of Aquitaine were over-lords of all the 



AFFAIRS IN GERMANY 87 

lands between the Loire and the Pyrenees. In the twelfth 
century it belonged temporarily to France but in 11 52 by the 
marriage of Henry II. of England with Elinor the heiress 
of Aquitaine the province became an English possession and 
remained such for a considerable time. 

Poitou, Guienne and Gascony were districts situated on 
the west coast of France, south of Brittany. These provinces 
like Aquitaine also became English possessions. Both Gas- 
cony and Guienne were important on account of the great 
trade with England. It was from them that during the 
middle ages she obtained most of her wine and salt. 

Toulouse lay to the east of Gascony. Its counts ruled over 
all the lands of southern France not subject to Aquitaine, 
and their jurisdiction covered such important towns as Nimes 
and Narbonne. 

Such were the principal fiefs of France at this period. 
The early Capetian kingdom seemed only one amongst 
many; but it had on its side kingly power, and the influence 
of the great ecclesiastical estates. Partly by force, partly 
by diplomacy and the natural sequence of events the Capetian 
monarchy gradually absorbed into itself also its rival neigh- 
bors. 

106. Affairs in Germany. — A similar process of develop- 
ment was also taking place in Germany. Arnulf, Duke of 
Carinthia in the southeast, had been mainly instrumental in 
procuring the deposition of Charles the Fat. Arnulf, in 887 
was then left in possession of the German crown. After a 
fairly prosperous reign in the course of which he beat the 
Danes near Louvain and secured an acknowledgment of his 
independence from Burgundy, Italy and the West Franks, 
he died in 899. His son Louis the Child succeeded, and dur- 
ing this reign were established the four great duchies of 
Germany which rivaled in importance the great fiefs of the 
Prankish kingdom. 



88 PARALLEL DEJ-ELOFMENT OF FRANCE AND GER}[ANV 

107. The Chief Duchies of Germany. — These duchies were 
Saxony in the northeast of Germany, Franconia in the west, 
Swabia in the south, and Bavaria in the southeast. Though, 
from the territorial point of view there was Httle difference 
in power among the (hichies, yet the Saxon duchy was cer- 
tainly the strongest. Not only was it free from the ener- 
vating influence of decayed Roman civilization and still in 
full possession of the old vigorous Teutonic polity, but its 
position was such as to foster all the martial virtues and a 
strong government. It was a border state, and being con- 
stantl}' threatened b}- the Danes and \A'ends the struggle 
for existence braced up its whole political life. 

108. Conrad I. — Prankish tradition however still prevailed, 
and on the death of Louis the Child, the nobles of Franconia, 
Saxony, and Swabia elected Conrad, Duke of Franconia, as 
king Conrad I. Their choice was certainly justified by the 
qualities of the one whom they elected. But new^ circum- 
stances often mar the reigns of very able rulers. Conrad 
had almost insuperable difificult}' in asserting his authority 
in the German duchies outside his own, and at the same time 
he was continually harassed by the invasions of the Danes. 
He himself perceiving that on the one hand he had not the 
old prestige of the Carlovingian kings and on the other that he 
had not sufficient compensating material power advised his 
brother Eberhard not to claim the throne when it became 
vacant but to waive his right in behalf of Henr^' of Saxony. 

109. Henry the Fowler. — \\7hen therefore Conrad I died 
in 918 the kingly power passed to Henry the Fowler of 
Saxony. There was little doubt that Henry was the fitter 
man to succeed. His personal gifts w^ere unquestionable. 
As statesman and as w-arrior he was unrivaled, and the tem- 
porary union of Saxony and Franconia, as well as the vigor- 



KixG cxrr IX exglaxd 89 

ous supremacy oi the Saxon duchy, were circumstances that 
strongly counted in his favor. 

no. Danish Rule in England. — The same period that saw 
tlie rise of the Ca|)etian dynasty also saw the complete suhjec- 
ti(^n of Engianfl t<i Danish rule. Under the great Danish 
king, Cnut. luigiand was brought together in still closer 
unity. His iron rule crushed out all provincial differences, 
and although he created the four great earldoms of Mercia, 
Northum1)erland. Wessex, and East Anglia. yet they were 
ke])t in close dependence upon the crown. Under his rule the 
condition of the people underwent a change for the better. 
The lower class of servile or semi-servile laborers w-as im- 
proved until it attained almost complete freedom, while on the 
other hand the old native baronage was reduced to a lower 
le\el by the intrusion of the foreign baronage. A strong 
middle class was thus gradually coming into existence and this 
tended to diffuse general comfort and prosperity. At the 
srmie time the roving spirit of the Danes tended to promote 
trade and intercourse with foreign nations. Not only Scandi- 
navia but now even Russia and Constantinople exchanged 
their wares for those of the English merchants. 

Cnut died in 1035 and with him ended the best period of 
Danish rule in England. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Rreak-up of the old Carolingian Empire — Successors of 
Charles the Fat of France — Gradual approach of Count Hugh 
to the royal power — Hugh declared king by Sylvester H — 
Hugh's power resting upon feudalism and royal power — Chief 
provinces of France — Xormandy — Flanders — Brittany — 
Maine and Anjou — Rlois and Champagne — Southern Provinces 

— Burgundy — Aquitainc. Poitou, Guienne and Gascony — Polit- 
ical development in Germany — The four great national duchies 

— Election of Conrad I. Duke of Franconia, as king — Henry 
the Fowler the first of the Saxon kings — England brought into 
closer unity under the Danish king Cnut — The four great earl- 



90 PARALLEL DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE AND GERMANY 

(lonis in dependence on the crown — Condition of the middle 
and of the lower classes — Expansion of English trade. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

KiTCHiN, History of France ; Suger, Life of Louis VI ; Adams, French 
Nation; Tout, Empire and Papacy; Sismondi, Histoire des Francois; 
Henderson, Germany; Emerton, Europe; Fisher, Medieval Empire; 
Lavisse, Political History of Europe; Green, Conquest of England; 
Powell, and Tout. History of England. 



i 



CHAPTER IX 



THE SAXON KINGS 



111. Rule of Henry the Fowler. — The secret of the success 
of Henry the Fowler's reign lay in this that he recognized 
and made the best of accomplished facts. He saw that the 
days of the personal rule of the Carlovingian kings were over, 
and that he must now reign as a feudal king. He therefore 
governed Germany only through the dukes and exacted from 
these dukes only the performance of feudal duties. 

He succeeded in improving greatly the internal condition of 
Germany. One of the great features of his reign was the erec- 
tion of walled towns that served as healthy centers of social in- 
tercourse and growing' civilization. Within these towns, fairs 
and markets were held, and gradually out of the more con- 
densed population there came to be formed a large and power- 
ful citizen class. He also improved the condition of the army, 
h'or not only did he insist on a better training of the soldiers, 
hut he also formed a strong cavalry corps — a great in- 
novation, for hitherto the Saxons had fought on foot. 

The internal strength of the kingdom soon enabled him to 
deal firmly with foreign enemies. In 924 he defeated the 
Slavs and took Brandenburg, one of their chief strongholds. 
In 933 he was equally successful against the Danes and took 
from them a strip of land that afterwards became known as 
the Duchy of Schleswig. 

The victorious career of Henry the Fowler was ended by 
his death in 936. He was then succeeded by his son Otto I. 

112. Otto I had a very different character from that of 
his father. Henry the Fowler had adopted a policy that was 
quite in harmony with existing facts. But Otto was am- 

91 



92 THE SAXON KINGS 

bilious and tried lo re\ert to the old Carlovingian idea of 
supreme personal authority. To do this it was necessary to 
secure the active support of the Church; and the first step in 
this direction was the crowning of Otto with great pomp and 
solemnity at the old capital of Aachen. He then endeavored 
to create a school of clerical statesmen into wdiose hands were 
entrusted the most important concerns of state. 

113. Personal Rule of Otto. — Unlike his predecessor. Otto 
I . was not content to govern the German people through the 
great dukes, but he determined to introduce his own personal 
government into every province of Germany. He therefore 
reduced as much as possible the pow-er of the local magnates 
and distributed the most powerful duchies among his own 
relatives and personal friends. Thus he made his brother 
Henry Duke of Bavaria. Then after defeating his faithless 
son-in-law Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, he made over the duchy 
to his brother Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne, while Suabia 
W'as entrusted to Otto's eldest son Ludolph. Nor was he 
content with this; he appointed Counts Palatine throughout 
the different duchies who, like the Carlovingian " missi 
dominici " represented in the local districts the interests of 
the crown. 

114. Foreign Affairs. — With regard to foreign invasions 
no contrast is to be found between the reigns of Henry the 
Fowder and Otto I. When the Hungarians renewed their 
aggressions he inflicted upon them a crushing' defeat on the 
Lech river near Augsburg (955). He was also successful 
against the Slavs, and the Bohemians. And in order to 
lessen the dread of future invasions he established all along 
the east frontier a line of small border-lands or marches, that 
were thoroughly fortified. One of these in the southeast of 
Germanv afterwards became Austria. 



OTTO THE FIRST 93 

The most notable element of Otto's foreign policy was his 
interference with Italian affairs. Italy at that time was hope- 
lessly divided among contending factions. Fhe I'upe. the 
Greeks, the Duchess of Bene\'ento and Spoleto, the Saracens 
and the Lombards — all these were living upon Italian soil, 
leading an existence of strife and rivalry. Berengar. the last 
of the Lombard kings, died, and the succession was dis- 
puted between Lothair. King of Aries, and Berengar of Ivres 
in Piedmonte. During the contest. Lothair died leaving a 
widow called .\delaide. Otto soon saw his opportunity of 
intervention. He settled the dispute b}' crossing the frontier, 
and marrying Adelaide. Then without being formally 
crowned, he became the \irtual king of Italy. 

115. Otto's Relations with the Church then enabled him 
to strengthen still further his position in Italy. The most 
important archbishoprics of Germany were those of Cologne. 
BesauQon. and Trier in \\est German}', and Mainz. Salzburg, 
and Aquileia, on the eastern side of Germany. Nearly all 
these had very extensive jurisdiction. Cologne, for example, 
had jurisdiction over all the Xetherlands. But Mainz had the 
most extensive jurisdiction of all. embracing central and north 
Germany. It had also control oxer the bishopric and towns 
that Otto had set up in the east marks of Germany. Circum- 
stances now made it desirable that these marks should be 
held together by a greater unity of local jurisdiction and Otto 
determined to set up another archbishopric at Magdeburg 
which should have jurisdiction over all these eastern marks. 
The Archbishop of Mainz, who was rather worldly-minded, 
opposed this curtailment of his spiritual power and Otto saw 
that he would have to fall back on the assistance of the Pope. 
It so happened that just at this time Pope John XII was 
particularlv in need of the assistance of the emperor. The 
pope, through the influence of the duke of Tuscany, had sue- 



94 THE SAXON KINGS 

ceeded in raising himself to the papal throne. But Berengar, 
the hereditary enemy of Tuscany, was exercising great 
tyranny over the papacy and the Church. Otto crossed the 
Alps by the Brenner pass, entered Rome and sealed an al- 
liance with the papacy by getting himself crowned emperor 
in 962. A few days after, the emperor, by way of return, 
issued a diploma securing to the pope the possession that 
had been granted to the Holy See by Constantine and suc- 
ceeding princes. 

116. Otto I Crowned as Emperor. — This crowning of the 
emperor by the pope marks a new phase in the history of the 
Italian Roman Empire. The empire was still supposed to be 
in substance what it had been under Charlemagne, but in 
reality it had become greatly altered. Territorially, it em- 
braced only Germany and Italy, and the emperor's rule in 
Italy was only intermittent. But to many of Otto's succes- 
sors, it recalled the memory of what had been in the past and 
had an important efifect upon their general policy. It pre- 
vented their concentrating their energies upon their own Ger- 
man territory, and by arousing ambitious ideas of a universal 
empire, caused them to neglect the practical and more urgent 
task of forming at home a united Germany. 

Such disastrous results, however, did not show themselves 
at once. Owing to the support of the pope, Otto's power was 
now so firmly established in Germany, that he succeeded in 
his design of creating a separate archbishopric at Magdeburg. 
In fact, Otto's reign seemed to have realized all the advan- 
tages without the disadvantages of the German Italian Em- 
pire. 

117. Otto the Second succeeded in 983. As the son of 
Adelaide and the husband of Theophano, daughter of the 
Greek emperor, his interests were already more Italian and 



OTTO THE SECOND 95 

Greek than Teutonic. His mind was highly imaginative and 
he dreamed of an empire that should extend far beyond the 
boundaries of his native Germany. 

Italy became the main scene of his activity. When the 
popes were being deprived of their liberty of action by the 
powerful Crescentius he marched to Rome and forced 
Crescentius to withdraw to the seclusion of a monastery. 
AX'hen the Mohammedans Avere threatening the Lombard 
duchy of Benevento, he hastened to its assistance and drove 
off the in\-aders. He even tried to get possession of the 
Greek territories in Italy that had been promised to him as 
the marriage dowry of Theophano, and a number of towns 
in the south of Italy fell into his hands. 

118. Political Tendencies Under Otto. — Nor was the pol- 
icy of Otto II altogether unsuccessful. At first, Germany 
seemed to be growing on the same lines of unification as under 
Otto I. There was still the original tendency to break up 
large political units into smaller ones, more dependent on the 
royal power. Already, even under Otto I, a considerable 
strip of land that had previously been dependent on Saxony, 
was placed under a separate ruler, Gero, and allowed con- 
siderable independence. 

This progress, however, depended entirely on the personal 
activity of the emperor. When he began to occupy himself 
exclusively with Italian affairs the strong local units of Ger- 
many, each tending away from the central government in 
order to revolve in its own sphere, began to cause serious trou- 
ble. Not only did the petty dukes, counts and ecclesiastical 
magnates seize the land, but a fatal want of cohesion also 
showed itself, that brought about powerlessness to resist for- 
eign invasions. The Slavs and the \A'ends renewed their in- 
vasions with greater success than before. Two bishoprics on 
the eastern frontier were devastated and the town of Ham- 
burg was destroyed. 



96 THE SAX OX K/XGS 

Amidst these rexerses in (iennany Otto was suddenly vis- 
ited Avith a fatal disease from which he died in the vear 

Otto III, son of Otto II, was only three years old at his 
father's death and determined attempts were made by the 
duke of Bavaria to upset the succession. Had it not heen for 
the fidelity of the greater part of the clergy, Otto would un- 
doubtedly ha\e been ousted. He became therefore greatly 
dependent upon the clergy. When his mother. Theophano, 
who had acted as regent, died, the council of regency consisted 
mainly of clerics who moulded his mind in their own way. 
Otto's training soon showed itself when he came of age, as 
well by his cosmopolitan ideas as Ijy his devotion and the 
goodness of his life. 

1 19. Otto III Interferes in the Papal Elections. — When 
in 996, Otto set off to Rome for his imperial coronation, the 
Holy City was a prey to two contending factions. On the 
one hand there were the partizans of Crescentius who sup- 
ported a papal nominee of their own, and on the other hand 
there was the opposite party that wanted a German pope. 
On arriving at Ravenna he met an embassy that had been sent 
to him from Rome in order to consult him as to the new^ pope. 
He at once named his own nephew Bruno. The Roman 
clergy and laity willingly followed the suggestion, and elected 
Bruno, who took the name of Pope Gregory V. This elec- 
tion of the first German pope that ever sat on the chair of 
Peter at once brought about a most useful harmony between 
the empire and the Church. 

The new pope, however, did not live long. His life of 
sanctity and usefulness was cut short by an early death in 
999. In the election of his successor. Otto III again played 
a very important part. His influence placed on the papal 
throne Gerbert, a Frenchman, a native of Aurillac in 



OTTO HI IN GERMANY 97 

Aiivergne, who, assuming" the name of Silvester 11, became 
(999) the first French Pope in the history of the Church. 
He was a man of great learning, and at the University of 
Cordova in Spain had acquired a proficient acquaintance with 
scientific sul)jects. He had also taken part in European poli- 
tics, and it was his interxention in behalf of the rising Cape- 
tian house that brought him into contact with Otto \\ of 
Germany. When Hugh Capet was made king, (jerbert w'as 
made Archbishop of Rheims. which diocese he afterward ex- 
changed for that of Ravenna. Both these positions he had 
filled with conspicuous prudence and firmness and it would 
have been hard to find a more fit candidate even for the papal 
throne. 

120. Otto's Failure in Germany. — A great contrast to 
Otto's achievement in Italy was his failure in Germany. 
There it had become plain that an imperial policy meant 
constant friction with the best interests of the German na- 
tion. The Germans had been used to see in the character of 
their rulers rugged simplicity and hard acti\ity. and their 
traditional sense of what was fitting was marred bv Otto's 
conduct in Italy. He had also added to the offense by assum- 
ing more than oriental etiquette. Clad in loose, long, flowing 
robes, he was only approacliable through a long series of of- 
ficials, while Rome itself was placed under the control of 
officials whose authority was partly papal, partly imperial. 
Together with these signs of imperial domination Otto had 
also shown a disregard for Teutonic interests by setting up a 
separate archbishopric in Poland, and thus recognizing its 
indej^endcnce in Germany. 

The disturbed condition of affairs in Germany necessitate<l 
the immediate presence of the emperor, but directly he turned 
his back upon Italy, the southern provinces of Italy rose in 
revolt. While the storm was thus at its height, Otto III died, 



98 THE SAXON KINGS 

conscious that his ambitious schemes had all ended in failure 
(1002). 

121. Successors of Otto III. — The two immediate suc- 
cessors to Otto III. were Henry II and Conrad II. Both of 
these kings were shrewd, practical men. They abandoned 
the visionary schemes of the Ottos, and leaving Italy to its 
fate tried to consolidate the greatness of Germany on local 
lines. 

Henry II has been sometimes called Henry the Pious and 
King of Priests on account of his sympathy with the clerics. 
But his clerical sympathies were A^ery different from those of 
Otto. He left the papacy alone and tried to conciliate rather 
the German clergy, whom he hoped to make an efficient 
counterpoise to the power of the nobles. The policy of 
Henry II succeeded in restoring order and strength to Ger- 
many. His appreciation of the limits of his power, his 
knowledge of the relation between the means and the end, 
prevented him from indulging in those schemes that had been 
so fatal to his predecessors. 

Henry II died in 1024 without issue and then there quickly 
rose the question of succession. The troubles of the times 
made immediate action absolutely necessary, and the nobles 
at once met together in order to choose a candidate. The 
method of the election was interesting. It seems to have de- 
pended not so much upon hereditary principles as upon the 
personal qualifications of who should succeed. The object of 
their choice was Conrad of Franconia, who then became the 
founder of the Franconian or, Salian, dynasty. 

122. Return of the Anglo-Saxon Dynasty in England. — 

The tyranny and oppression of Cnut's successors made the 
Danish rule unbearable to the nation. Earl Godwin saw 
that the Danish cause was hopeless and on the death of 



THE SAXON RESTORATION 99 

Harthacniit he procured a reversion of the succession to the 
Anglo-Saxon line. Edward, son of King Ethelred, was then 
in exile, but was speedily recalled and made king. Edward's 
rule was remarkable for its firmness and clemency. He him- 
self, on account of his eminent sanctity, has been surnamed 
the Confessor, while Godwin, his minister, was a man of 
consummate caution, vigilance and industry. But the law- 
lessness of Godwin's relations brought about his fall and 
exile. After one year of exile, Godwin was recalled but 
died soon after, lea\ing his son Harold as successor to the 
post of minister. Harold, like his father, showed a re- 
markable talent for government and organization. Revolts 
were at once put down, justice was firmly administered and 
commerce extensively promoted. It was not difiicult to fore- 
see the result. While Edward was slowly sinking to the 
grave, Harold drew nearer to the throne, and when Edward 
died in 1066, Harold immediately succeeded him as Harold 

n. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Reign of Henry the Fowler — Walled towns as centers of 
civilization — Henry's defeat of the Slavs — Otto I — His alli- 
ance with the Church — His extending the royal power by 
making his relatives rulers of the provinces — His victories 
over the Slavs and Bohemians — Otto's interference in Italy — 
His obtaining a new archbishopric at Madgeburg — Is crowned 
emperor by Pope John XII — Meaning of the new empire — 
Its results on Germany and Italy — Otto II's ambitious schemes 

— He divides up the larger political units of Germany into 
other smaller and more dependent ones — Otto II's absence in 
Italy causes troubles — Otto III — His training and ideals — 
Otto III interferes in Rome and sets up Gregory V and after 
him Sylvester II — Otto Ill's unpopularity and his failure in 
Germany — Disturbances in Italy and in Germany — Failure of 
Otto III — Henry II's reign — His moderation and his success 

— In England, reign of Edward the Confessor — Administration 
of Godwin — Accession of Harold to the throne. 



lOO THE SAX OX KINGS 



GENERAL REFERENCE. 



Freeman, Holy Roman Empire; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire; Tout, 
Empire and Papacy; Henderson, History of Germany; Emertox, Europe; 
Alzog, Church History; Powell and Tout, History of England; Green, 
History of English People. 



i 



CHAPTER X 

SALIAX EMPERORS AND THE INVESTITURE QUESTION 

123. Conrad II. — The two first Salian Emperors were Con- 
rad II and Henry III. Both of these men were well versed 
in practical politics, and were gifted with remarkahle energy 
of character — a (|uality that counted for much in the Middle 
Ages. \\ hile they had no very high ideals, yet they aimed 
at what was possible of achievement and knew how to turn 
present mo\ements to their own advantage. 

Conrad II succeeded both in enlarging the boundaries of 
his German Kingdom and in consolidating its internal great- 
ness. In speaking about the different kingdoms that went 
under the name of Burgundy, we have seen that there were 
two kingdoms called respectively Cis-Juran and Trans-Juran 
Burgundy. In the year 933 both these kingdoms were united 
under the name of the Kingdom of Aries. The king of 
Aries was now old and childless, and some provision had to be 
made regarding the succession. By a friendly arrangement, 
the kingdom was allowed to go to the German Empire and 
so in 1032 the Empire received this important addition to its 
territories. The importance of this acquisition can be meas- 
ured only when considered in relation with the politics of the 
times. The Arelate kingdom was one of the great centers 
of the Cluniac movement, and thus it tended to increase the 
Cluniac movement already begun in Germany. France be- 
came more isolated from general European politics and the 
German emperor had a freer hand in Italy. Though the 
emperor had little personal control over his new possession, 
the sympathies of the Arelate nobles were mainly German. 
The emperor exercised what jurisdiction he had by means of 

lOI 



I02 THE INVESTITURE QUESTION 

a chancellor whose seat of power was at Treves — thus re- 
minding us of a similar institution in the government of 
Italy — which was ruled by the chancellor at Cologne. 

124. Alliance of Emperor and People. — Perhaps the most 
signal proof not only of the good fortune but of the adroit 
statesmanship of Conrad is the way in which he increased the 
power of the crown at the expense of the great feudal nobles. 
The question had arisen as to whether the estates of the lesser 
tenants should be handed down from father to son, as was 
the case with the estates of the great feudal vassals. The 
greater nobles, in order to strengthen their own power re- 
fused to admit the hereditary principle in regard to the lower 
tenants. But Conrad posed as the protector of the lower 
vassals. He insisted that their estates should be hereditary, 
and thus gained a great diplomatic victory. For the ex- 
tension of the hereditary principle not only strengthened the 
dynastic hold over the empire but it also secured to the em- 
peror the unswerving allegiance of the great mass of fighting 
men throughout the country. 

Conrad II died in 1039 and he was succeeded at once by 
his son Henry III. 

125. Henry III. — Under Henry III the empire rose to its 
greatest strength. Germany became in effect the leading- 
nation of Europe and the controller of its destinies. 

The internal strife that had marred the early greatness of the 
emperors was now over, while as yet there appeared no symp- 
toms of the terrific struggle that was shortly to take place 
between the Empire and the Church. 

126. Synod of Sutri. — The most striking event of Henry 
Ill's reign was the synod of Sutri (1046) at which two out 
of three rival popes were deposed, while in the midst of 



I 



THE NORMANS IO3 

tumult Henry succeeded in securing the election of a candi- 
date of his own. 

The new pope was a German bishop noted for his piety 
and learning. He assumed the title of Clement H and his 
reign soon put an end to some of the scandalous disorders of 
his predecessors. Lest the support of the emperor might in 
any way prejudice the future independence of the Church he 
insisted on presenting himself to the Roman people for elec- 
tion. 

This intervention of the emperor put an end to the evil 
domination of the counts of Tusculum in Church affairs, 
h'rom now, the wearers of the tiara were at least no longer a 
disgrace to Christendom. Under the influence of the Ger- 
man emperor, there were elected popes of distinguishd piety 
and ardent zeal for the betterment of the Church. One of 
these was Pope Leo IX. This able pontjff strove to exericse a 
strong personal supervision over the remotest parts of Chris- 
tendom, and his visits to h'rance and Germany remind one of 
the imperial progresses of some of the later emperors. 

127. Normans in Italy. — The Normans, as we have al- 
ready seen, had obtained a firm settlement in the north of 
France. Being fond of adventure and inclined to piety they 
took a great delight in making pilgrimages. It thus came 
about that a number of Normans went on a visit to the 
sanctuary of St. Michael in southwest Italy. T^ie delightful 
climate and rich soil prolonged their stay. After a life of 
some years of exciting adventure they were allowed by the 
duke of Naples to settle down in the town of Aversa, near 
Naples (1030). 

128. Alliance Between the Pope and the Normans. — It 

was not long befcMT the Normans extended their territory. 
In alliance with the Greeks they succeeded in taking Sicily 



T04 THE INVESTITURE QUESTION 

from the Saracens. The victory had the effect of violently 
dissolving the alliance, the Greeks claiming the exclusive 
glory of the victory, and as a consequence, the exclusive ap- 
prt)priation of its spoils. The angry Normans then by way of 
compensation took possession of Apulia, and this province was 
ruled in succession by three able .dukes of the noble house of 
Hauteville. Acquisitions of this kind, however, were not 
likely to go unchallenged. Both Henry III and Pope Leo 
IX advanced in the direction of Cirtella with a body of Ger- 
man soldiers. Again the Normans were victorious, but re- 
specting, in their hour of victory, the dignity of the supreme 
Pontiff whom they had made prisoner, they fell on their 
knees before him and implored forgiveness. He readily par- 
doned them and an alliance between the papacy and the Nor- 
mans was soon effected — an alliance that was destined to be 
in after times the main support of the papacy in its hour of 
direst need. 

129. Reform of Papal Elections. — 11ie next process in 
strengthening and making more independent the position of 
the papacy was an alteration made in the method of holding 
papal elections. Up to 1059 the election of the pope had been 
in the hands of the emperor and of the Roman people. Such 
a method of election was attended with great abuses, for the 
Roman people formed a very unwieldy and disorderly mass 
of electors, while the emperor might or might not be in- 
fluenced by worldly motives. 

Nicholas II in 1059 applied a remedy by decreeing that in 
future the College of Cardinals should alone constitute the 
electoral body. 

Thus the papacy by the altered method of holding the papal 
elections as well as by its close alliance with the Normans was 
]i1aced in a stronger and more independent positi(^n. The 
papacy had indeed owed much to the patronage of the emper- 



DETAILS OF THE QUESTION 105 

ors, but it now gave signs of being able to lead a more iso- 
lated and independent life; at the same time, circumstances 
were already tending to bring about a complete rupture be- 
tween the empire and the papacy. The ill-defined relations 
between Church and State, and the confused notions resulting 
from the Holy Roman Empire were mainly responsible for 
this, but the immediate question which formed the battle cry 
of both sides was the question of investiture, that is whether 
the bishop or the temporal lord was to invest a newly made 
l)relatc with the spiritual insignia of his ofiice. 

130. The Investiture Contest. — In tracing the history of 
the Investiture Contest it will be helpful to consider first of 
all the more general issues at stake, for it was these more 
than the specific question of investiture that brought about the 
conflict. 

Up to the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the Church and 
State had been conceived as forming one society. But now 
both Church and State began to assert in a most distinct way 
their own separate existence. In the conception of the Holy 
Roman Empire they had been loosely and erroneously con- 
sidered as forming one society. But in the eleventh and 
twelfth centuries, the element of distinction between the two 
societies loomed into view. It was a common occurrence for a 
man to be a bishop, and yet, as holding a large fief, be an im- 
portant factor in the state. At once the question was bound to 
rise: " W'liich society is to claim the bishop and fief-holder? 
L'nder whose jurisdiction does he come? Under that of the 
Church or of the State? "' 

Such was the general complexion of the contest between 
the Church and Empire in the early middle ages and this brief 
account of the question at issue will enable us to appreciate 
with greater clearness the more detailed description of the 
several points that were raised. 

f . '^ 



I06 THE INVESTITURE QUESTION 

131. Details of the Questions Between Church and State. 

— First, there was the reform of the Church. The holders of 
spiritual benefices often led careless and worldly lives, think- 
ing more of the temporal emoluments of their offices than 
of its serious responsibilities. A reform was imperatively 
urgent. Yet any reform if carried out would involve the 
freedom of the German bishops and abbots from their de- 
pendence on the emperor. They might, it is true, become 
more' clerical, but in their exclusive regard for the interests 
of the Church they would be apt to ignore the political in- 
terests of their imperial patron. 

Closely connected with the general reform of the clergy was 
the question of clerical celibacy. This had already been pre- 
scribed by very ancient statutes. But the observance of the 
law seems to have been generally lax. Feudalism had cer- 
tainly been an impediment rather than a help to its observ- 
ance. The bishop or prelate that held a great fief naturally 
desired to keep the fief in the hands of his own family, and 
marriage was the most efficient means for this purpose. The 
position of the prelate in consequence was considerably de- 
graded. Ignoring the spiritual side of his office, he tended to 
regard himself as a mere feudal magnate. 

The third and most immediate point at issue between the 
Church and State was that of investiture. Who was to invest 
a newly made prelate with the ring and crozier, the sacred 
symbols of his office? The Church regarding him as her 
officer claimed that she alone could do this, while the State 
looking to his capacity as a holder of land insisted that this 
was her right. This more than anything else was a question 
of positive fact, and it had the effect of bringing to a head 
the discord that had been raised by the general aspect of the 
situation. 

132. Character of Gregory VII.— In 1056 Henry III died 
and his son Henry IV succeeded, and during his reign Pope 



GREGORY AND HENRY IV 



107 



Gregory VII ascended the papal throne. Gregory's personal 
appearance was dwarfish and insignificant, and his utterance 
was affected by a slight stammer, but within there was a soul 
distinguished by singleness of principle and indomitable 
energy of character. Like all great minds his whole life was 
swerved by one dominant idea and that idea was the exalta- 
tion of God's Church upon earth. It was Gregory's imselfish 
devotion to this great object, together with the high integrity 
of his private life, that made him 
the most prominent man of his 
times. 

He at once made clear the po- 
sition of the Church in the matter 
of investiture. He forbade under 
pain of excommunication any 
bishop or abbot to receive investi- 
ture from a lay ruler, and under 
like penalties he forbade any lav 
ruler to presume to invest any 
spiritual officer with the insignia 
of his spiritual office. 




A kin 



investing a bishop by giving 
him the crosier, or pastoral staff. 



133- Contest Between Gregory VII and Henry IV. — The 

resulting contest was sharp and made both emperor and pope 
fight with all the weapons at their command. But it soon be- 
came clear that the pope's position was the stronger of the 
two. There were on his side the Saxon nobles who, being 
disaffected toward the emperor took the side of the pope; 
there was in France, Germany, and Italy the eminent array 
of the supporters of the Cluniac reform, all of them devoted 
adherents of the central jurisdiction of the papacy. There 
was the Countess Mathilda who held an enormous estate in 
Tuscany, and finally the Normans, who ever since the al- 
liance with Pope Leo IX, had been faithful supporters of 



To8 THE INVESTITURE QUESTION 

the pope. Henry's position in Germany was soon made in- 
tolerable by the pope's violent activity. He saw that re- 
sistance was useless and hastening across the Alps went 
to Canossa. one of Mathilda's castles where the pope was 
now staying-. \\\i\\ every sig^n of abject submission he sub- 
mitted to the Holy Father. Gregory received him pater- 
nally, absolved him from his faults and restored him to his 
kingdom. 

This reconciliation, however, was very far from settling the 
question. Henry's abject submission united the German no- 
bles against the papacy. In fact, even at the present day 
the sentence " Be sure we shall not go to Canossa " en- 
graved on Bismarck's monument at Harzburg bears witness 
of Germany's enduring memory of the humiliation she had 
once undergone. Moreover, the reconciliation was too in- 
definite. 

134. Temporary Defeat of the Papacy. — Hie contest broke 
out again, and this time the odds were more equal. Henry 
found in Germany many adherents of his cause, while in Italy 
he was supported by a strong faction bitterly hostile to the 
pope. In 1084 the armed forces of Henry beat those of the 
pope. Gregory was besieged in the castle of St. Angelo, and 
Guibert, Archbishop of Ravenna, was enthroned in his place. 
But in the hour of peril the pope was rescued by his Norman 
friends under Robert Guiscard, and Gregory was able to with- 
draw into exile where he died uttering these words : " I 
loved justice and hated iniquity, and therefore I die in exile." 
The position of the papacy, however, was now gradually re- 
trieved when Urban II became pope, in 1088. His first act 
was to put down the antipope Clement III. He then succeeded 
in bringing about a marriage between the senventeen year old 
prince of Bavaria and the Countess Mathilda and thus effected 
a union between the papal forces in Germany and those in 



CONCORDAT OF WORMS 109 

Italy. Skilful diplomacy also won over to the papal side the 
hitherto anti-papal district of Lombardy. And even these 
local triumphs fade in importance when l'rl)an II at the 
Council of Piacenza in Italy and Clermont in France invited 
the whole Christian world to take ])art in the crusade against 
the Turk. In the midst of these papal triumphs Henry IV 
died, conscious that the best fruits of his previous victories 
had l)eeen lost. His successor was his son who became 
Henry \ ( 1 \of)). 

135. Renewal of the Contest. — Thoui^h Henry \' during 
his father's reign had taken the part of the pope, he now re- 
verted to liis father's policy and insisted on the secular rights 
of investiture. The pope, Pascal II, sternly upheld the 
rights of the Church and thus we enter upon the second phase 
of the investiture contest. The result was a compronu'se in 
which the pope, on condition of receiving the right of in- 
vestiture, agreed to surrender to the emperor all the Church 
lands saving his own. Tliis compromise was praiseworthy 
in essence, but it implied ideas of separation of Church and 
State that were ahead of those times. In any case it was 
bound to offend the great Inilk of the clergv, who saw their 
own temporal interests tlms la\ishh' surrendered while the 
p(^pe retained possession of his own lands. 

136. Concordat of Worms. — Again, therefore, was the con- 
test renewed, and the third and last phase of the investiture 
question was the celebrated Concordat of \\^orms (1122), be- 
tween Henry V and Calixtus II, one of the successors of 
Pascal II. The terms of the celebrated concordat were as 
follows: The emperor surrendered to the pope the right of 
investing with the ring and crozier; he also surendered the 
right to aj^i^oint bishops and abbots; on the other hand the 
pope conceded that the bishops and abbots should, be ca- 



no THE ISiESTITlRE QVESTIOX 

nonicaiiy ciecietl in pre^^enoe of the eiiii-»eror or of his repre- 
sentative, that contested elections were to be decided by the 
enn>eror. and that the investiture of new prelates with their 
civil and judicial functions should rest w ith the enii>eror. 

The compromise endetl satisfactorily the question of in 
vestiture. The double and misleadiuii; siiiiiitioance of the 
s;ime s\-mbols were removed. The Church was to ctMifer the 
ring" and staff as her s\nnlx^ls. while the State was to receive 
the oath of homage and fidelity as her symlx^ls. 

137. The Broad Question Between Church and State. — 
The concordat of \\ onus, however, only settled one of the 
many difficulties between Church and State. In fact, the in- 
vestiture contest is only a minor issue t>f the great bri>ad 
question that is ever present — is the Church in the State or 
is the State in the Church. All along the frontiers of both 
Church and State are constant fierce recriminations and at the 
bottom of all disputes lies the unhappy igiiorance of what 
really i^ertSi.tis to God and what really pertains to Caesar. 
The contest between the empire and jxaixicy was stx^n to break 
out more fiercely than ever, though fought out on other 
grounds, 

138. William I of England. — During the contest lx?tween 
the Salian emi>erors and the pc^pes, England was conquered by 
the Normans. Duke William of Xonnandy laid claim to the 
English crown, alleg-ing that he had l>een promised the succes- 
sion by King Eilward. He crossed over into England with a 
[x-twerful anny and at the battle of Hastings in Sussex defeated 
the Saxon forces, while Harold himself was slain. Duke Will- 
iam then marched on London and presented himself for elec- 
tion. There he was welcomed with loud acclamations from 
his new subjects and the crown was placed on his head by 
Archbishop Ealdred (1066). 



FEUDAL SYSTEM IN ENGLAND III 

139. His Political Organization. — William's militar)' valor 
and rapid movements soon brought the entire kingdom 
into subjection, and he soon organized his new conquest with 
masterly skill. The English soil was parcelled out among 
his followers on condition of their performing the usual feudal 
service. He thus formally established in England the feudal 
system that in the Anglo-Saxon times had already existed 
in the war companions, or "thegns," of the king, and in the 
folk lands that had been granted out as a reward for military 
service. But the feudalism which William introduced was 
very different from that on the continent. He would not 
allow the under-tenants to hold their lands on the condition of 
fealty and allegiance to their immediate lord only, but insisted 
that all the tenants should take an oath of homage and al- 
legiance directly to him. He thus managed to keep within 
modest bounds the power of the greater barons, who on the 
continent tended to develop into ind^endent sovereigns. 

In order to make his authority still more secure he revived 
the old English courts of justice. The political administra- 
tion was taken out of the hands of the feudal barons, while 
the supreme jurisdiction of the King's Court upheld the king's 
claim to be the sole fountain of justice. 

Even the Church was made dependent upon the crown. 
Many of the old Saxon bishops had become worldly-minded 
and William filled their places with X'orman prelates, many 
of them eminent for their piety and zeal. The only Anglo- 
Saxon bishop allowed to remain was St. Wulstan of 
Worcester. 

140. Church Organization.— The fact that the new Xorman 
prelates were foreigners, unacquainted with the dialect of the 
country, made them very dependent upon 'the king and sub- 
servient to his policy. Moreover, lest their jurisdiction should 
tend to exceed convenient limits, William effected a complete 



112 THE INVESTITURE QUESTION 

separation between the civil and ecclesiastical courts. From 
henceforth all ecclesiastical cases were to be tried in purely 
eccleciastical courts, and the bishops were no longer to sit by 
the side of the lay judges in civil courts of justice. 

Under William's successors, William II and Henry I the 
king's power became less absolute. The revolt of Robert, 
Duke of Normandy, and of many other of the barons, as well 
as the firm attitude of Archbishop Anselm, considerably lim- 
ited the power of William II. The same causes w^ere also at 
work during the reign of Henry I and he, by his own de- 
liberate actions, hastened the advance of a constitutional gov- 
ernment. His marriage with the Saxon princess Matilda 
tended to blend the Saxon with the conquering Norman ele- 
ment, and his charters of freedom to some of the great Eng- 
lish towns gave to the townsmen the rights of electing their 
own magistrates, administering justice by their own law offi- 
cers, and managing trade concerns through their own guilds 
or commercial corporations. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Reign of Conrad II — His acquisition of the kingdom of Aries 
— The importance of this acquisition — Conrad II makes the 
estates of the lesser nobles hereditary — Reign of Henry III — 
Synod of Sutri in which Clement II is made Pope — Pontificate 
of Leo IX and his alliance with the Normans — • The Pope's 
authority strengthened by the papal legates — Pontificate of 
Nicholas II — The election of Popes now entrusted to the car- 
dinals — Origin, functions and position of the cardinals — Be- 
ginning of strife between the empire and the papacy — General 
causes of misunderstanding between Church and state — Mean- 
ing of the investiture contest — Gregory VII becomes Pope and 
the struggle begins - — • The Pope's position is the stronger — 
Henry IV goes to Canossa — Death of Gregory VIII in exile — 
Urban II holds councils at Piacenza and at Clermont — Revival 
of the struggle between Henry V and Pascal II — Compro- 
mise between these two — Final settlement of the question by 
the Concordat of Worms between Flenry V and Calixtus II — 
Conquest of England by Duke William of Normandy — Differ- 



GENERAL REFERENCE II3 

ence between the feudalism introduced by William and that on 
the continent — William keeps up the old courts of justice — 
Changes made in the Church in England — Importance of the 
reign of Henry I. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Tout, Empire and Papacy; Henderson, History of Gennany; Lea, 
Sacerdotal celibacy in the Christian church; Alzog, Church History; 
Emerton, Medieval Europe; Dante, de Monachia; Henderson, Select 
Documents; Vincent, Age of Hildehrand; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire; 
BowDEN, Life and Pontificate of Gregory VH ; Creasy, Decisive Battles 
of the World; Freeman, Norman Conquest; Macy, English Constitution; 
Gardiner, Student's History of England; Taswell-Langmead, English 
Constitutional History, p. 45 to 61 ; Stubbs, Select Charters, pages 79, 80 
and 55. 



CHAPTER XI 

CONTINUATION OF THE CONTEST BETWEEN THE EMPIRE AND 

PAPACY 

141. The Papal Position Strengthened. — The Concordat 
of Worms was far from settling finally the long quarrel be- 
tween Church and State. It had not yet solved the great ques- 
tion whether the emperor or the pope was the chief ruler in 
the Holy Roman Empire. 

The course of events, however, had made the position of 
the pope relatively much the stronger. Besides the help of 
the Countess Matilda and of the Normans in Italy, he had 
also had at his command the widespread influence of the re- 
ligious orders throughout Christendom. For while ecclesias- 
tics tended to become worldly and thus weaken the Church's 
influence, new religious orders were arising that tended to 
make the Church the champion of learning atid upright liv- 
ing throughout the world. Some of these new institutions 
followed the old lines of the Cluniac movement, only they 
insisted on greater penance, and more prayer and recollection. 
Others again while not withdrawing the clerk altogether from 
contact with the world strove to surround him with some of 
the safeguards of the religious life. 

142. The Cistercians. — Amongst the orders that followed 
the lives of the old Cluniac movement the most important 
were the Cistercians and Carthusians. 

The order of the Cistercians was founded by Robert of 
Moleme. He, with a few faithful followers, settled down at 
Citeaux near Dijon. There they were soon joined by St. 
Bernard of Foutaines. The extraordinary sanctity of this 

114 



THE CISTERCIANS II5 

man soon attracted numerous folloAvers. Want of space soon 
compelled them to found some new homes elsewhere, and in 
TI15 St. Bernard at the head of a numerous band of follow- 
ers, moved to Clairvaux, leaving behind at Citeaux as abbot 
the Englishman, St. Stephen Harding. 

The leading features of the Cistercian order are the rigor- 
ous practice of the rules of 
the C 1 u n i a c foundation. 
Their poverty was such that 
even their very churches, the 
vestments and adornments 
had to be as simple as pos- 
sible. Towers and belfries 
were prohibited. In fact, at 
the present day wherever ex- 
ists the remains of a Cister- 
cian church with a belfry, 
the probability is that the 
church was built in later 
times, when the order was 
decadent. Their discipline 
and penances were of the 
severest nature and their 
obedience extended to the 
minutest detail. What time 
remained from prayer was 
chiefly spent in manual la- 
bor. The country that was 
occupied by the Cistercians thus soon became opened up in a 
remarkably short space of time ; marshes were drained and 
converted into fields and rich pastures. Soon the Cistercian 
order became noted for its agricultural wealth, and the " Cis- 
tercian wool " afterwards became an important feature of 
England's commerce with Flanders. 




Saint Bernard. 



Il6 CONTEST BETWEEN THE EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

143. The Carthusians. — Another order founded on very- 
much the same hues was that of the Carthusians, founded 
by St. Bruno. In the stiU famous monastery of the Grande 
Chartreuse in Dauphiny he gathered round him his early en- 
thusiastic disciples. The discipline and severe penances remind 
one of those of the Cistercians, but a peculiar feature was the 
blending together of the eremetic and cenobitic ideals. The 
Cistercians led a community life, but the Carthusians lived in 
individual privacy. Each member had his own little cell 
where he worked, prayed, slept, and dined apart from his 
brethren. Owing to this arrangement, the buildings of the 
Carthusian order are generally of immense size, and are 
threaded with long cloisters. 

Both the Cistercians and Carthusians differed in one re- 
markable respect from the old Cluniac foundations. Their 
daughter houses were allowed a certain control over the par- 
ent house. General chapters of the whole order were held 
and these had jurisdiction to correct any abuses that might 
exist in the parent house. Thus not only did the government 
of the order become more democratic but a greater safeguard 
was instituted against the introduction of relaxation. 

144. The Canons. — We must now consider some of the 
religious institutions of another kind. It came to be recog- 
nized that instead of finding one's salvation by entire separa- 
tion from the world and its dangers the same end might be 
as readily accomplished by remaining in the world and work- 
ing for the temporal or spiritual welfare of one's neighbor. 
With this view were founded about the ninth century numer- 
ous congregations of regular canons. Not that the cononical 
life was any new idea. St. Augustine of Hippo had already 
established a little community of priests in his own house- 
hold, and bishop Chrodegang of Metz had introduced the* same 
custom into his diocese. Not, however, till the time of St. 



FREDERICK BARBAROSSA WJ 

Norbert of Premoiitre in 1120 did the movenieiiL assume a 
wide importance. He became the founder of the Austin 
canons who ahnost rivaled the Cistercians in popularity. The 
canons, like ordinary clerics, preached, heard confessions, and 
went thr()Ug"h the ordinary routine of parochial work. At the 
same time by means of their community life and their obedi- 
ence to a superior they managed to keep up the spirit of 
recollection and the practice of the interior virtues. 

All these different orders gave great help and strength to 
the Church. ]\[oreo\er. the popes that now reigned were 
men of aljility and determination and eminently fitted for the 
closing scenes of the great struggle between themselves and 
the empire. 

145. Frederick Barbarossa. — The death of Henry V in 
1 125 ended the Franconian dynasty, and with the interval of 
a single reign a new dynasty was placed on the German throne 
in the person of Frederick I, surnamed Barbarossa or Red- 
beard. The Hohenstaufen dynasty became remarkable for 
its strong- emperors. Frederick was perhaps the ablest and 
most famous of them all. In personal appearance he was tall 
and majestic, while his powers of statecraft and his extraor- 
dinary dexterity in using' favorable opportunities placed him 
in a more commanding position in the two countries of Italy 
and Germany than had been the case with any of his prede- 
cessors. He abandoned a purely local German policy and 
determined to assert himself in Italy. He quickly consulted 
the eminent jurists of the time, chiefly from Bologna, in 
order to find out the full extent of his rights. His rights, or 
regalia, as they were also called, were declared to be the 
suzerainty over certain cities and lands, the power to appoint 
magistrates, to collect tolls, to coin money, to impose an extra- 
ordinary war tax, and to enjoy all the proceeds from fisheries, 
and from salt and sil\-er mines. The emperor's power was 



Il8 CONTEST BETWEEN THE EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

also extended to such towns as could not produce formal proof 
of independence. 

146. Rise of Italian Towns. — It was this last clause that 
brought about strife between the emperor and his Italian sub- 
jects. The towns had now begun to assume an important 
place in medieval history. They had become centers of com- 
merce and industry, and had begun to rival the monasteries 
as homes of culture and refinement. At first, the cities had 
been mainly under the control of the bishops. But later the 
citizens had aspired to some share in the government. Often 
by brute force, sometimes by judicious diplomacy many of 
the cities succeeded in removing their government from epis- 
copal into municipal control. Naturally, the richest and most 
influential citizens got into office and this often caused inter- 
nal strife, but all would unite against any invasion of their 
common privileges. 

147. War Between Frederick and the Towns. — Freder- 
ick's assertion of the regalia over many of the Italian towns 
at once set Italy aflame. Both sides found partisans in the 
struggle. The nobles some years previously would have 
stood against the emperor, but now they rallied round him 
against the towns who had also rebelled against their juris- 
diction. The pope and the clerical party, on the other hand, 
sided with the towns against the emperor. Thus it happened 
that most of the towns were Guelf and most of the nobles 
were Ghibelline, though there were exceptions. The family 
of the Orsini, for example, w-as Guelfic, and Pavia was Ghi- 
belline. 

Milan was foremost in resisting the emperor's claims. It 
absolutely refused to receive the podesta who was the supreme 
magistrate, generally foreign, appointed by the emperor. 
Other cities soon followed the example. Frederick turned all 
his forces against the city of Milan. After three year's siege 



THE LOMBARD LEAGUE 



119 



it was taken and destroyed. One interesting episode of the 
siege was the removal of the reHcs of the Three Kings of the 
East from Milan to 'the Cathedral at Cologne, where they 
still remain. 

148. The Lombard League. — After this the cities at once 
formed a league for greater defense, called the Lombard 
League (ti68). Its energy and spirit of co-operative enter- 
prise are still visible in the town of Alessandria, which they 




-... _uy of Milan. 

named after Alexander III, the pope who so zealously 
espoused their cause. In 11 76 was fought the decisive battle 
of Legnano which produced more tangible results than most 
battles of the middle ages. The emperor was completely 
beaten, and after a temporary truce made at Venice the treaty 
of Constance was signed. By the terms of this treaty the 
emperor was forced to recognize Alexander III as pope and 
practically to give back to the towns their old rights of mu- 
nicipal self-government. 



I20 COXTEST BETWEEX THE EMPIRE ASD PAPACY 

Besides these immediate results, the pope was placed in a 
still more influential position, and the middle class of Italy 
had made an important step in asserting- the position in Euro- 
pean politics. 

149. Success of Frederick in Germany. — Frederick's de- 
feat, however, did not mean complete failure. In Italy he 
had only failed to gain something new% and now in Germany 
he succeeded in humbling his rival the Guelfic Duke of Ba- 
varia, Henry the Lion. A chance quarrel Ijetween the duke 
and the Bishop of Halberstadt was Frederick's opportunity. 
He interfered in the quarrel, and after crushing his old rival, 
dismembered his dominions. Its Alpine districts were taken 
aw^ay and set up into the new duchy of Styria, wdiile the rest 
of Bavaria was given to Otto of Wittelsbach, one of Freder- 
ick's followers. Flenry himself received by way of compen- 
sation a small tract of land round Brunswick, which after- 
wards became the Duchy of Brvmswick. 

Barbarossa also secured a great diplomatic triumph by 
marrying his son Henry to Constance, heiress to the Norman 
kingdom of Sicily. The pope was thus likely to find himself 
menaced with the power of the Hohenstaufens both on the 
north and on the south. 

150. Henry VI. — In 1190 Barbarossa died and his son 
Henry VI succeeded, who, in spite of his ability, again demon- 
strated the utter incompatibility of a united German and Ital- 
ian policy. His Sicilian subjects, headed by Count Tancred, 
revolted against their would-be German sovereign. After a 
long and bitter struggle Henry VI succeeded in enforcing his 
claim, but e\'en then his German subjects would never con- 
sent to recognize any permanent unitMi between Germanv and 
Italy. 

Upon the death of Henry VI (1197) the long and bitter 



INXOCEXT THIRD 121 

contest between the empire and papacy reached its crisis. 
The strongest of the popes and the strongest of the emperors 
now enter the hsts and displayed the fuU force of their power. 
The pope was Innocent III and the Emperor was Frederick 
II, as yet a minor of only three years of age. 

151. Innocent III ascended the thrune at the age of thirty- 
seven in all the vigor of manhood, endowed by natnre with 
all the talents of a ruler and possessed of uncommon erudi- 
tion. He was also a man of lofty aims and able to interest 
himself in the remotest concerns of Christendom. His po- 
litical sagacity was extraordinary, and yet he was also a spir- 
itual man and seems to have had at heart the genuine wel- 
fare of the Church. Under him, the political influence of the 
papacy achieved the summit of its greatness. Innocent made 
and unmade an emperor of Germany, successfully rebuked 
the king of France for adultery, so completely humbled John, 
King of England, that he resigned his crown and received 
it back again as a fief from the pope. Xo kingdom seemed 
too remote for his activity. He reduced the kings of Portu- 
gal and Aragon to a state of \'assalage, and finally even inter- 
fered with the government of the new Slavonic kingdoms. 

152. Innocent's relations with the Empire show very 
clearly the enormous influence which he must have had in 
Europe. At the entreaty of Constance he had consented to 
act as guardian to the infant son of Henry II, promising to 
uphold his authority in Sicily. And well did the pope fulfill 
his promise. He not only successfully put down the turbulent 
barons, but also organized a successful go\-ernment through- 
out the entire prox'ince. 

153. Innocent's Spiritual Activity. — His spiritual activity 
was almost as many-sided as his political activity. It was he 
that patronized the new orders of the Friars that now came 



122 COXTESr BETWEEN THE EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

into existence, and it was he again that held the celebrated IV 
Lateran Council. The importance of this council is seen 
from the decrees that it passed. The heresy of the Albigenses 
in the south of France was condemned; the whole life and 
discipline of the Church was brought up to a higher plane, 
paschal communion and confession was made obligatory, bish- 
ops were commanded to set up free schools, to teach poor 
scholars grammar and theology ; and what had an important 
influence on the judicial system in England, the old fashioned 
trial by battle and by ordeal were condemned.^ 

At first Innocent was determined not to allow the king- 
doms of Germany and Southern Italy to become united under 
one head, for he would be thus exposing himself to the power 
of the Hohenstaufen house both on the north and on the 
south. 

The German barons were of the same mind, though for 
different reasons. But in Germany itself there were two 
rival claimants, Philip of Suabia, a Ghibelline, and Otto of 
Brunswick, belonging to the Guelfic faction. An appeal w-as 
made to the pope, who naturally decided in favor of Otto of 
Brunswick, the leader of the Guelfic party (1209). 

154. Innocent Interferes in German Affairs. — But Otto in 
power soon showed himself very different from Otto in a 
state of dependency. Not content w'ith his German posses- 
sions, he strove to drive out Frederick II from Sicily and se- 
cure that kingdom for himself. Instantly both France and 
the pope tried to dethrone the ambitious Otto. Germany was 
roused by French and papal emissaries into such a state of 
disaffection that it deposed Otto, and the pope, in order to 

1 The trial by combat consisted in deciding the guilt or innocence of a 
person on the merits of a doubtful case by an appeal to arms. Trial by 
ordeal consisted in establishing the guilt or innocence of a person by 
such processes as walking on red-hot coals with impunity, or swallowing 
a morsel without choking. 



1 



FREDERICK SECOND 1 23 

avoid the immediate dangers that threatened the Holy See, 
accepted Frederick II as emperor in Germany, only stipulating 
that Germany and Sicily should not be indissolubly united.^ 

Innocent III died (12 16) and with his death we enter upon 
the last phase in the great contest between the empire and the 
papacy. 

155. Frederick II. — The death of Innocent left. Frederick 
II the strongest man not only in Germany but also in Chris- 
tendom. Perhaps no emperor had ever held a stronger posi- 
tion than did Frederick during the few years after Innocent's 
death. It even seemed likely that the imperial dream of a 
united Italy and Germany might be realized. Both Germany 
and South Italy were in the emperor's actual possession. The 
only barrier was the papal states that lay in between, and this 
barrier showed even more how impossible it was to reconcile 
the interests of Church and papacy. 

156. Character of Frederick. — Frederick was the man, if 
any to bring about the desired result. Though his personal 
appearance was stunted and insignificant and his baldness and 
short-sightedness hardly accorded with his claims to imperial 
dignity, yet he was the first emperor who seemed to have 
stepped beyond the boundaries of his age. It is curious to 
note that his views regarding personal cleanliness seem to 
have shocked some of the conservative clerics of the time who 
complained that he took baths on Sunday. In religious mat- 
ters he was the first to practice toleration, permitting all re- 
ligions in the kingdom of Sicily, though this policy shows a 
striking contrast to his policy in Germany. 

157. His erudition was liberal and little short of marvel- 
ous. He spoke Latin, French. Italian, German, Greek, and 

^ The issue was decided at the battle of Bouvines (1214), when the 
papal forces helped by France crushed the united arms of Otto and 
King John of England, 



124 CONTEST BETWEEN THE EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

Arabic. His court was the center of culture and retinement 
and to it flocked learned scholars from many parts of Chris- 
tendom, among- whom were Michael Scott who translated 
many of Aristotle's works, and also Leonard of Pisa who 
introduced Arabic numerals from the East. He himself was 
an author and was hailed by Dante as the " Father of Italian 
poetry." He was the first sovereign to found a royal uni- 
versity, w'hich he did at Naples, and he also founded a med- 
ical school at Salerno. His taste for geology also led him 
to establish a geological garden for didactic purposes. Nor 
was he merely an antiquarian or a man of abstract erudition. 
There are few men in history who have showed such mas- 
terly powers of organization. By his own unaided genius, he 
built up in Sicily an administrative system that rivaled the 
best elements of English government and jurisprudence. 

Such was the emperor who was destined to fight out the 
last act of a Ions: and bitter strusfSfle. 



'&>&' 



158. Strife With Honorius III. — When Frederick had 
been made emperor by Innocent III he had promised two 
things, first, to disassociate himself from the Italian kingdom 
over which he was to make his young' son Henry ruler, second, 
to embark on a crusade against the infidel. It was the non- 
fulfilment of this promise that caused the first friction .be- 
tween himself and the papcy. Honorius III succeeded Inno- 
cent III. Honorius had been an ardent supporter of the 
emperor, but Frederick when congratulated on the succession 
of such a pope remarked : " I have only lost a friend, no 
pope can be a Ghibelline." 

159. Crusade of Frederick II. — Honorius III urged Fred- 
erick to undertake the crusade and the better to secure this 
did not press immediately the question of the Sicilian king- 
dom. But Frederick still refrained from the crusade and he 



CRUSADE OF FREDERICK II 1 25 

Still called himself king of Sicily. At last Honorius excom- 
municated him and prepared to renew the hostile league be- 
tween himself and the Italian cities — a league that had al- 
ready been so disastrous to Barbarossa. In 1127, Honorius 
III died and Gregory IX succeeded. He was already an old 
man, but of strong will and imperious energy. Frederick 
sailed from Brindisi for the crusade but returned in three 
days with a plea of sickness. It is probable that the excuse 
was real, for Frederick now had an interest in the crusade. 
He had married Isabella of Brienne and thought he had some 
claim to the kingdom of Jerusalem. But the pope soon placed 
him under the ban and foiled his departure till the ban was 
removed. However, Frederick on his recovery ignored the 
ban, sailed for the Holy Land and by skilled diplomacy 
achieved a most signal triumph, procuring for the Christians 
the Holy Land of Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem, 
h^rederick, howe\'er, did not forget his own interests, for he 
had himself crowned king of Jerusalem. 

On Frederick's return he found that during his absence, the 
pope had been stirring up Germany against him. But Fred- 
erick's speedy return quelled the uprising and the p<jpe. taken 
by surprise, was only too glad to make with Frederick the 
treaty of San Germano in 1230. 

160. Frederick's Activity in Sicily. — Frederick was then 
free to turn his attention to Sicily, o\er which he had not re- 
lincjuished his regal title. Perhaps in no sphere of activity 
did Frederick so well display the modern element of his 
genius as in the " Constitutions of the Kingdom of Sicily." 
He entirely swe]it away the old feudal system. For the petty 
jurisdiction of the barons, he substituted his own kingly au- 
thority, instead of the feudal dues was introduced a system 
of direct taxation, while the petty judicial functions of the 
barons were replaced by a system that closely resembled the 



126 CONTEST BETWEEN THE EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

judicial system of England in one stage of its development. 
Even the representative system was introduced, each estate of 
the realm being represented by its own general court. 

i6i. Frederick's Failure in Germany. — But Frederick's 
triumph in Italy meant the downfall of his prospects in Ger- 
many. While he succeeded in establishing his monarchy in 
Sicily the cause of local independence asserted itself in Ger- 
many. In fact, a number of causes, individually powerless 
but collectively overwhelming, were fast bringing about the 
downfall of the once powerful house of Hohenstaufen. The 
enmity of the popes, the adverse activity of the friars, the 
turbulence of the barons at home and the onward progress of 
the city states of northern Italy proved irresistible. The em- 
peror struggled on to the last but his aged frame was no 
longer able to stand the storm and he died in 1250. 

162. Results of Frederick's Failure. — The death of Fred- 
erick not only closes the greatness of the Holy Roman Empire, 
but was accompanied with momentous results for future Eu- 
ropean politics. 

1. The chance of forming a united Germany was deferred 
indefinitely. For the only animating principle that was likely 
to bring and to keep together its component parts was now 
removed. From now the map of Germany presents a con- 
fused medley of petty kingdoms, duchies, principalities, and 
bishoprics, each leading a separate independent life. 

2. The same condition also obtained in Italy. The history 
of Italy now becomes the history of independent city states. 
Even at the present day visitors cannot but notice how each 
Italian town seems to have a distinct type of its own — so 
different from many of our American cities of which you 
may with truth say that if you have seen one you have 
seen all, Even the inhabitants, of the towns seem to have an 



HENRY II OF ENGLAND I2y 

individuality and a distinct type and tradition of their own. 
.Vnd all this is accounted for by the past history of Italy — 
the failure of the emperors to assert their unifying influence in 
Italian politics. 

3. There was one section of society that seemed to have 
come out of the contest with success. That was the middle 
class. Both in German}- and Italy the middle class assumed 
an important position in politics and with them rested in a 
great measure the shaping of the destinies of Western Eu- 
rope. 

163. English History of the Period. — In 1 154 while h^red- 
erick Barbarossa was reigning in (lermany, a new dynasty of 
kings was estal)lished in England 1)\' the accession of Henry 
II of the house of Anjou. Henry II had much of the abil- 
ity and many of the organizing powers of the German emper- 
ors, but unlike them he had not to cope with such overwhelm- 
ing difficulties. The reign of Henry II marks the fullest 
extent of English possessions in l^rance. Erom his parents 
he inherited Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, and by his 
marriage with Elinor of Aquitaine he inherited the provinces 
of southwest hrance. Indeed the whole of the western half 
of Erance belonged to England. Henrv II .also asserted his 
claim to the possession of Ireland, and in i i(S5 an English set- 
tlement was definitely established in the eastern part of Ire- 
land, a district that was henceforth known as the English pale. 

164, Henry II and the Church. — The chief features of 
Henry's reign are his relations with the Church and his per- 
fection of the ]:)olitical system. The separation of the Church 
from the lay courts had been provocative of great abuses; a 
cleric when committing a crime could not be punished 
straightway, but had to be degraded and only after a second 
crime could any punishment be inflicted. By the constitu 




The mur 



der of St. Thomas a Becket in Canterbury Cathedral. 



HENRVS ADMINISTRATION 129 

tions of Clarendon all this was done away with and clerics 
were made amenable to the civil courts of the realm, it being 
enacted that they should be under the jurisdiction of the 
ecclesiastical or of the lay court according to the ciuality of the 
offense that they had committed. St. Thomas a Becket, 
Archbishop of Canterbury, strongly opposed this,, and the re- 
sult was a serious quarrel between himself and the king, in 
the course of which he was murdered in his own cathedral by 
four knights who thereby thought to do the king a service. 

165. Henry's Temporal Administration. — The best part of 
Henry's administration was his judicial work. Tlie assizes 
of Clarendon and of Northamjiton provided for the defence 
of the people from thieves and murderers. Towns and 
boroughs were made responsible for the prevention of crime; 
while in the repression of crime, the jury system was for the 
first time practically and definitely introduced. But in Hen- 
ry's time the jurors, unlike our modern jurors were supposed 
to be- acquainted with the facts of the case and character of 
tlie accused person, wliile the jurors also acted as judges. It 
is from the jurors in the latter capacity that we have our 
grand jury who still indict criminals for crime. In the 
thirteenth century, after the prisoner had been judged guilty 
Ijy the jury, he was forced to undergo a further trial by or- 
deal, which we have already explained. Then when the 
Fourth Lateran Council abolished the trial by ordeal, another 
jury was established instead called petty jury and it is this 
that gave rise to our ordinary jury. 

Henry II also improved in other ways the administration 
of justice. He divided the kingdom into six districts and 
the king's justices visited these at stated times. At first their 
main duties were financial, but later on these duties were en- 
trusted to other officials, and the judges became what they 
are to-day. 




King John signing the Great Charter. 



THE GREAT CHARTER 131 

166. Richard and John. — Henry II was succeeded by his 
two sons, Richard I (1189) and John (1199). Both of them 
for different reasons were bad kings. Richard was excki- 
sively preoccupied with his crusading expeditions and with 
his French possessions, for which purpose he laid heavy bur- 
dens on the people, while John tried to make himself a despot. 
The expenses of the kingdom were undoubtedly heavy, but 
John tried to meet them by imposing direct taxes as well as 
by raising the ordinary feudal rexenues. In addition to this 
the subject was often unjustly deprived of his life and liberty. 

167. The Great Charter. — The barons headed the opposi- 
tion to the king. Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, like 
Lanfranc and Anselm, also stood forth as the champion of the 
popular liberties. The result was the signing" of the Great 
Charter, the first bulwark of English liberties. This docu- 
ment is important as being the first written law to show forth 
the fundamental elements of the English Constitution. From 
henceforth none were to be " seized, or imprisoned or dispos- 
sessed or outlawed or in any way brought to ruin, except by 
lawful judgment of their peers or by the law of the land." 
Every man was to be entitled to justice without delay, and 
above all, outside the then customary feudal aids no tax was 
to be imposed save by the consent of the common council of 
the realm. This last clause gave to the people the legal power 
of the purse and was the chief weapon in their constitutional 
war against future despotic kings. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Foundation of new orders — Origin of the Cistercians — The 
spirit and rule of the Cistercians — Influence of the Cistercians 
— Origin of the Carthusians — Peculiar features of the Carthu- 
sian order — Congregations of regular canons — Union of mo- 
nastic spirit with the active life — Rise of the new Hohenstauffen 
dynasty in Germany — Character and policy of Frederick I — 
Growing power of the Italian towns — Strife between Frederick 



J 32 COXTEST BETWEES TtlE EMPIRE AXD PAl'ACY 

I and the Italian towns — The Guelphs and GhibeUines — De- 
struction of Milan — The Lombard League — Battle of Legnano 
and Treaty of Constance — Frederick's policy in Germany — 
Marriage of Prince Henry with Constance — Reign of Henry 
VI — Pontificate of Innocent III — His character — His spirit- 
ual activity — The IV Lateran Council — His political activity 
all over Europe — Frederick II becomes emperor — His appear- 
ance and character — His different policy in Germany and in 
Italy — Struggle between Frederick II and Pope Honorius III 
and Pope Gregory IX — Frederick's crusade — Political changes 
made by Frederick in Sicily — Frederick's failure in Germany — 
Cicneral results of the activity of the emperors — Reign of Henry 

II in England — Extent of English possessions in France — 
Conquest of Ireland — Henry's intervention in Church matters 
and his c[uarrel with St. Thomas a Becket — Assizes of Claren- 
don and Northampton — Origin of the Grand Jury and the 
Petty Jury — Henry's legal arrangements — Reigns of Richard 
I and of John — Signing of the Magna Charta. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Jessupp, Coming of the Friars; Stokrs, Bernard of Clairvaux; Fisher, 
History of the Christian Church; Alzog, Church History; Milman, Latin 
Cliristianity; Dugdale, Monasticism; Stephen, Translation of " Histoire 
des ordrcs monastiques" ; Henderson, History of Germany; Balzani, the 
Popes and the Hohenstaufen; Emerton, Medieval Europe; Tout, Empire 
and Papacy; Freeman, Historical essays; Adams, Civilisation during 
Middle Ages; Pastor, History of the Popes; Barry, the Papal Monarchy; 
Raumer, History of the House of Hohenstauffen; Green, History of 
England; Stubbs, Select Charters,' pp. 135 to 159, also pp. 296 to 306; 
Ramsay, Angevin Empire; Archer, Crusade of Richard I ; Green, His- 
tory of England; Barrinton, Magna Charta. 



CHAPTER XII 

IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Tlie Crusades 

1 68. Strife of East and West. — iMen during the ancient 
history of Greece and Rome there had been some contact be- 
tween the eastern and western civihzations. The wars be- 
tween Persia and Greece marked the attempt of the eastern 
type of civilization to encroach upon the West and even in 
the later history of Rome we find the continuation of this con- 
flict in which each of the contending parties seemed unable 
to overthrow and absorb the other. During the middle ages 
there was also a contest between the East and West, but a 
contest of a different character. 

169. Religion Cause of Dispute. — The immediate cause of 
dispute was now no longer political but religious. We have 
already seen that the Saracens had possessed themselves of 
Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and the other Holy Places sanctified 
by our Lord's earthly presence. On the occasion when Omar 
took possession of Jerusalem he made a treaty with the Chris- 
tians, the terms of which were so humiliating to the con- 
quered that chronic discontent was sure to be the result. The 
treaty provided that the Christians were to build no new 
churches and were to allow the Turks to enter the old ones: 
no cross was to appear on the outside of the buildings, and 
church bells were only to toll. The pilgrims who frequented 
the holy places were subjected to great humiliations and an- 
noyances. 

170. Political Causes. — To these grounds of religious com- 
plaint, might he added others of a political nature. The 

134 



CAUSES OF THE CRUSADES 135 

Turk's political creed was one of aggression^ and expansion, 
and Constantinople being the outpost of Christendom was 
placed in very great danger. During the pontificate of Urban 
II the emperor made earnest solicitations to the Pope, for as- 
sistance, and even the orthodox Christians of Europe were 
beginning to see that the interests of the heretic Greek w^ere 
practically identical with their own. 

171. Other Causes of the Crusades. — While the danger 
that threatened Europe and the Church was very real, there 
were also certain internal conditions that made the great bulk 
of the people respond heartily to any invitation to go out and 
fight the East. The two chief professions at that time were 
those of the monk and of the soldier. Those who were not 
monks were more or less soldiers, and were filled with the 
fighting spirit of adventure. Moreover, the war against the 
heathen must have seemed to many a good chance of escap- 
ing from those monotonous caste distinctions of medieval 
society, whereby each individual had to walk exactly in the 
profession of his father and to pursue the occupations of that 
particular section of society in which he happened to have 
been born. The crusades, in other words, not only appealed 
to the love of adventure but they also held out a new hope of 
bettering one's condition and of raising oneself to w^ealth and 
distinction. Each man had some prospect of escaping from 
that deep rut in which his life would have otherwise have been 
spent. 

172. The Period of the Crusades. — Men were therefore 
eager to fight the heathen, and during the middle ages, from 
the eleventh to the thirteenth century, there was constant war- 
fare going on between the Christian and the Turk. The nine 
crusades that are recorded were only emphatic stages of 
this conflict, when greater numbers than usual went out to 



136 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

the East, and certain important definite results were accom- 
plished. 

173. The First Crusade took place during the reign of 
Urban II. Nothing shows more clearly the growing influ- 
ence of the papacy than the fact that during the fierce investi- 
ture contest with Henry IV, the pope was able to promulgate 
throughout Christendom the first great crusade. Pope Urban 
II first of all held a council at Piacenza, at which there ar- 
rived messengers from the Greek emperor imploring aid. He 
then held a second council at Clermont in France before a 
great concourse of enthusiastic people, and on this occasion 
Urban proclaimed the crusade. The appeal was not in vain. 
Thousands there and then took up the cause and donned the 
red cross, the sign of their agreement, and in a short time, 
owing to the eloquence of Peter the Hermit, the movement 
spread throughout all France. 

174. Character of the First Crusade. — During the first 
crusade, however, the great sovereigns of Europe took no 
part. The real leaders of the expedition were the four great 
feudal nobles of the second rank. Chief among these was 
Godfrey de Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, who spoke fluently 
both the' French and Teutonic dialects, and who, on account 
of his unsullied character, the unselfish character of his mo- 
tives, and his political sagacity was looked up to as the chief 
leader of the expedition. Next in social influence, since he 
was the brother of the king of France, came Hugh, Count 
of Vermandois, who had endeared himself to many by his 
genial temperament. Robert, Count of Normandy, was con- 
spicuous for his bravery and was hardly surpassed in this re- 
spect even by Tancred, his companion in arms, the hero of 
Tasso's poem, " Jerusalem Delivered." The orator and 
chairman of the meetings of the war council was Stephen, 
Count of Blois, a man of eloquence and practical sagacity. 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 1 37 

These were the chief leaders, and under them were a host 
of lesser knights. 

Upon their departure for the Holy Land the crusaders had 
to undergo certain rites and ceremonies, all calculated to pu- 
rify the conscience and to rouse the loftiest ideals. The knight 
hefore his departure had to settle the affairs of his soul, to 
renew his baptismal vows, to swear to champion the innocent 
and oppressed ; he also commended himself to our Lady, who 
in the chivalric language of that period became to him " Notre 
Dame." 

175. The Beginnings of the First Crusade were not suc- 
cessful. The vanguard of the army consisted of an unorgan- 
ized multitude of men, women, and children under Peter the 
Hermit. The wanton aggressions and disorders of the crowd 
drew upon them the hostility of the king of Hungary, through 
whose dominions they had to pass, and even when after many 
sufferings and delays they reached the Holy Land, they were 
completely cut to pieces by the Saracens. 

176. The Main Body of the army met with better success. 
After pursuing different routes, the leaders with the several 
forces arrived at Constantinople. Alexius, the emperor, be- 
gan to repent of his invitation, for he soon saw that the cru- 
saders might deem the conquest of an heretical prince like 
himself a useful preliminary to the real object they had at 
hand. In fact the enormous numbers of the crusaders and the 
uncertain character of their motives were quite calculated to 
fill him with alarm and suspicions. But his diplomacy was 
equal to the occasion. He dexterously maneuvered the pas- 
sage of the crusaders across the Bosphorus in such a way that 
they were not all together on one side, but so that some would 
be on the eastern bank and others on the western. He even 
persuaded their leaders to take an oath to deliver to him as 
supreme over-lord all the territory that they might conquer. 



138 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

177. Foundation of European Principalities in Eastern 
Lands. — When the crusaders arrived at the Holy Land a 
series of great battles was fought. Nicsea was taken in 1097, 
and through a secret compromise between the Greek emperor 
and the Saracens, was delivered into the emperor's hands, 
much to the vexation of the Latins. Then Antioch w^as taken 
in spite of its impregnable position on Lake Ascalon, and 
this fell into the hands of Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard. 
Of all the leaders of the crusaders Bohemond seems from the 
very first to have been the least disinterested. On the way to 
Jerusalem another leader of the crusaders also managed to 
secure personal possession of part of the spoils. This was 
Baldwin, Count of Flanders, who took possession of and 
founded the principality of Edessa. Raymond of Toulouse, 
who had also hoped to get Edessa, compensated himself with 
the principality of Tripoli on the coast. 

178. Capture of Jerusalem. — At length the crusading army 
arrived at Jerusalem. The difficulties of taking it were great, 
owing to the scarcity of food and water in the surrounding 
district, and the want of the necessary besieging materials. 
But in two months' time the town fell, mainly owing to the 
timely arrival at Jaffa of vessels with supplies from Genoa. 

179. The Kingdom of Jerusalem. — The crusaders organ- 
ized their conquest into what was called the Latin Kingdom 
of Jerusalem. The constitution which they formed is inter- 
esting as affording the purest type of feudal government that 
had ever existed. Feudalism elsewhere had to contend 
against certain extraneous elements, but here the crusaders 
were enabled to reproduce their feudal institutions on per- 
fectly fresh ground. 

180. Constitution of the New Kingdom. — God f rev. who 
had been elected king of Jerusalem by the successful army, was 



THE SECOND CRUSADE 



139 



supreme over-lord. Under him were the greater feudatories 
of Syria, TripoH, Edessa, and Antioch, and under these again 
were the lesser fiefs. Justice was administered in three 
different courts : first, in the high court of the barons pre- 
sided over by the king himself; second, in the court of the 
burgesses, which met the needs of the popular element, and 




The capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders. 

third, in the Syrian court intended for the use of the native 
Christians. 

The foundation of the Latin kingdom, however, did not 

meet with much solid success. The old quarrel between tht 

lurks and Arabs, which had partly accounted for the success 

of the first crusade, had been healed. Soon Edessa was taken 

and the whole Latin East was threatened. 



•I40 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

i8i. A Second Crusade in 1147 was then preached, this 
time by St. Bernard. Two large armies were equipped and 
commanded respectively by Conrad III of Germany and Louis 
VII of France. Conrad III, who went on ahead, met with 
a crushing defeat, and had to retreat to Antioch, where Louis 
VII had just arrived with a French army. The two kings 
made a fatal mistake which at once compromised the suc- 
cess of the crusade. They attacked Damascus, whose ruler 
was inclined to be neutral in the contest, and this at once 
had the effect of making him throw in his cause with the 
other Saracens. Conrad soon thought it advisable to return 
to Germany, and Louis followed him in a year's time without 
anything substantial being" accomplished. 

182. The Third Crusade, in 1187, differed from the two 
preceding ones in that it was not originated by the Church, 
but by the State. Philip Augustus, king of France, Richard, 
King of England, and Frederick Barbarossa, emperor of Ger- 
many, were the chief leaders of the movement. Frederick 
Barbarossa was the first to start and after successfully evad- 
ing the treachery of Isaac Angelus, then emperor at Constanti- 
nople, successfully reached Cilicia. There the old emperor, 
through imprudently bathing in a rapid river, lost his life, 
and the German army without a leader was soon dissolved. 
The kings of France and England went to the Holy Land 
by Naples and Sicily. During the journey, Richard slightly 
deflected from his course in order to wrest the island of 
Cyprus from the Greek prince Isaac, who was suspected, with 
reason, of being friendly with the Saracens. 

The third crusade did not fulfil all the anticipations that 
were entertained of it. There were many romantic exploits 
and much individual valor was displayed, in fact, the third 
crusade more than any other has become the theme for the 
novelist. But, unfortunately, the misunderstandings between 



CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE 14I 

the French and the English were ahnost more serious than 
the quarrel between the Christians and the Saracens. Philip 
returned to France disconsolate and disgusted, and Richard 
continued the contest single-handed. His diplomacy rather 
than his victories succeeded in procuring from Saladin, the 
magnanimous leader of the Saracens, permission for Chris- 
tians to visit the holy places unmolested. 

183. The Fourth Crusade, in 1198, took place in the reign 
of Innocent IIL It was originated by Fulk of Neuilly, who 
was warmly supported by the Pope. The commander-in- 
chief at first was Count Theobald, but owing to his early 
death, the Italian Boniface of Montferrat was appointed to 
the dignity. Other important personages were Louis, Count 
of Blois, Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and Simon de Mont- 
fort, afterward so renowned in English history, and finally 
Geoffrey of Villehardouin, from whose written records we 
derive most of our information concerning the expedition. 

The old difficulty of transporting the crusaders was met 
by an active alliance with the Venetians. The Venetians sup- 
plied the necessary ships and provisions, while the French 
agreed to pay in return 85,000 marks of silver and to allow 
the Venetians an equal share of the conquest. 

184. The Crusaders Take Constantinople. — But certain 
events at Constantinople diverted the expedition from its orig- 
inal course. The brutal and unpopular Isaac Angelus had 
been deposed by his older brother Alexius, and was blinded 
and confined in a dungeon (1195). Another Alexius, the 
son of Isaac Angelus, appeared in the French camp, and ap- 
pealed for help. Boniface of Montferrat, now the com- 
mander-in-chief, and Dandolo, the Doge of Venice, undertook- 
to restore Isaac. Constantinople was taken mainly through 
the seamanship of the Venetians, and Isaac was reinstated on 



142 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

the throne. Young Alexius, however, found it difficult to 
make good the rich promises with which he had persuaded 
the crusaders to help him. The grievous taxes laid on the 
people and the plunder of their churches made them revolt. 
Events then moved with startling rapidity. Isaac died sud- 
denly, his son Alexius was strangled, and an adventurer, 
Alexius Ducas, had himself made emperor under the title of 
Alexius V. The Christians now made a second attack on 
the city, and after a fierce onslaught succeeded in taking it 
in April, 1204. Alexius V was killed, and the crusaders 
avenged themselves by a wholesale pillage and massacre. 
Another Latin kingdom was now set up at Constantinople, 
and the Franks and Venetians divided the spoil between them- 
selves. A Frenchman, Count Baldwin of Flanders, became 
emperor; a Venetian, Thomas Morosini, became patriarch of 
the new orthodox empire. Boniface was made king of Thes- 
salonica, while the Venetians not only obtained possession of 
a considerable quarter of Constantinople itself but they also 
acquired important settlements in Greece, especially on the 
Peloponnessus, together with nearly all the coast-land and 
islands including the Ionian islands and the Cyclades. 

The Fourth crusade thus accomplished a great deal in 
changing the map of Europe, but as regards the professed ob- 
ject of the crusade, namely the recovery of the Holy Land, 
the results were practically nil. 

185. The Fifth Crusade (1217) was undertaken by Fred- 
erick II, whose reign we have already reviewed. Strange to 
say, this prince, whose orthodoxy was so often under sus- 
picion, and who at the very time of the crusade was under 
sentence of excommunication, succeeded in accomplishing 
much more than any of his predecessors. After skilled nego- 
tiations, he made a treaty with the Sultan by which most fav- 
orable terms were granted. Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Jer- 



END OF THE CRUSADES 1 43 

iisalem were restored to the Christians, the only condition be- 
ing that the mosque of Omar should still be allowed to remain 
in the hands of the Saracens. 

186. The Last two Crusades were practically fought out 
by St. Louis of France alone. The old crusading spirit had 
died out and even the recapture of Jerusalem by the Turks 
failed to rouse Europe. In 1249, St. Louis at the head of an 
army attacked the enemy in Egypt. The issue soon showed 
that the place of campaign was ill-advised. The Christians 
found themselves in a desert and difficult country, cut off 
from the basis of supplies. They were soon surrounded by 
the enemy. Resistance was hopeless and the whole army had 
to lay down its arms, Louis himself being taken prisoner but 
shortly afterward released. However, in 1270 Louis again 
took the cross and this time directed his forces against Tunis, 
a place almost as inaccessible as the other. Listead of be- 
sieging it he became besieged in his own camp and fell a vic- 
tim to the plague in the August of 1270. 

187. Results of the Crusades. — The crusades brought 
about a revolution in the general condition of society. They 
loosened the connection between the landowner and his hold- 
ing, a connection that was greatly responsible for the stereo- 
typed form of medieval society. Vast multitudes of men by 
coming into contact not only with the East but with other 
continental nations had their ideas suddenly enlarged. So- 
ciety thus became less localized, less medieval and more ready 
for the great changes of the sixteenth century. 

The crusades were also the occasional cause of new reli- 
gious orders that for several years played an important part 
in European life. 

188. The Military Orders.— It was during this time that 
the military orders were established. Hitherto the monk 



144 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

and the soldier had been two separate types, but now they 
were blended into' one. While taking the three vows of 
poverty, chastity, and obedience, they also undertook, when 
duty required, to fight the heathen. 

The two chief of these military orders were the Hospi- 
tallers and the Templars. The Hospitallers were founded 
by Raymond Le Puy in 1130, and as soon as their monastic 
life was begun, adopted the rule of St. Augustine. Their 
special work of charity was to look after the safety and com- 
fort of the pilgrims to the holy places. After the capture of 
Jerusalem they took up their residence in Cyprus. From 
there they went to Rhodes, and finally in the sixteenth cen- 
tury settled down in Malta, where they remained until the 
Napoleonic wars in 1798. It was from there that we have 
the Maltese cross of four-tailed arrow points, still a substan- 
tial feature of the British flag. Even now there exists in 
Brandenburg, a branch of the order and is recognized by the 
King of Prussia. 

The Templars were founded about the year 11 28. Their 
chief duty was to protect pilgrims on their way to the holy 
places. Their habit consisted of a white mantle, upon which 
was embroidered a large cross. A great number of their 
foundations called temples, soon sprang up all over Europe. 
In each of these there were three distinct groups of knights, 
simple men at arms, and chaplains. In London at the present 
day, the Temple Church is part of one of these old establish- 
ments, while in Paris, the temple where Louis XIV was 
imprisoned for a time before his execution also belonged to 
the same order. 

189. Effect on Commerce. — Perhaps the most remarkable 
way in which the crusades reacted on Europe was in the 
promotion and expansion of commerce. Contact with new 
lands and with the new productions of the East increased 



RESi'LTS OF THE CRUSADES 145 

the range of men's wants and suddenly widened the markets. 
Spices, perfumes, and precious stones were much in demand, 
wdiile judging from the treaties of that time cloves seem to 
have become a necessary article of diet. The trade routes 
from the East converged at Venice and thence went up the 
rivers Danube and Rhine to the cities of north Germany. 
Venice especially pi"ofited by this. Like Genoa and Pisa, she 
had had trading quarters in most of the Eastern cities and 
the fourth crusade gave her important possessions in Con- 
stantinople. \'enice soon became a great maritime empire, 
the coins of all countries found their way there, and at 
Venice was started the first bank that in any way resembles 
our modern l)ank. It was merely a bank of deposit, but it 
prepared the way for the bank of Genoa which also traded 
with the capital of its customers. Thus to the crusades we 
are partly indebted for the earlier introduction of our bank- 
ing system. 

190. Heraldry. — .\s another result of the crusades may 
be mentioned the introduction of the art of heraldry. It 
l)ecame necessary to distinguish the different orders of 
nobles and knights, and for this purpose a court of heraldry 
was established. During the 13th century, in France 
there was such a court, governed by an official who bore 
the title of " king-at-arms," the same title as that worn by 
the present chief of the college of heralds in London. Ap- 
propriate coats of arms were invented and a complicated lan- 
guage put together such as could be understood only bv the 
initiated. 

191. Rise of Free Towns. — The period of the crusades is 
also the period of the rise of the towns. The weakening of 
the ties between the landlord and the soil tended to lower 
the condition of the feudal baron, and the growth of com- 



146 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

merce tended on the other hand to give greater importance 
to centers of commercial activity. 

The rise of towns during the middle ages must no doubt 
all times and in all countries, such causes for example as in- 
crease of population, a certain restlessness brought about by 
be attributed to the same general causes that are at work in 




A view in old Nuremburg. 

greater civilization, and the need for defence and mutual in- 
tercourse. But in addition to these general causes the towns 
were very often the result of deliberate intent. For example, 
Freiburg, or " Free Town," was founded by Duke Berthold 
of Zahringen, who summoned the future citizens together, 
and distributed among them their freeholds round what was 
intended to be the future market-place. 



THE FREE TOWNS 147 

192. Government of the Towns. — The government of these 
towns was at first in the hands of the lord of the town, whether 
bishop or prince, and at first each inhabitant had to contribute 
personally the dues that had to be paid to his' over-lord. But 
gradually there crept in the custom of making the whole 
town collectively responsible for these dues, so that they 
were paid direct to the over-lord, not by the individual but by 
the body that represented his interests. This change, \vas 
perhaps not of much financial importance, yet it emphasized 
the growth of the corporate life of the town, and prepared 
the way for the assumption by this representative body of 
other and more important political rights. Partly by violence, 
partly by commuting the ordinary feudal obligations for cer- 
tain fixed payment the town generally managed to acquire 
practical independence and self-government. 

193. Trade Guilds. — This government, how^ever, did not 
reside in the general body of the citizens, but in the hands of 
the trade guilds, which were associations of members belong- 
ing to the same trade for such purposes as self-defence, regu- 
lation of the hours of labor, of the wages that w^ere paid, and 
of the cjuality of the goods sold. These guilds were also in- 
surance societies, and a member w'ho became sick or who fell 
into misfortune could always rely upon his guild for help. 
Nor were these associations merely financial. They were 
hallowed by certain traditions and by a spirit of reverence 
on the part of the members. 

The guilds were of two kinds, merchant guilds, and craft 
guilds. The merchant guilds were the first to appear, and 
consisted of those traders that had a greater amount of cap- 
ital and who were engaged in the more extensive financial 
enterprises. Since the town was pre-eminently a trading 
center the members of these guilds were the most important 
among the citizens, and it was they wdio first of all acquired 



148 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

control of the affairs of the town. But by degrees those who 
by wealth and position did not belong to the merchant guilds 
began to form certain associations of their own. These were 
the craft guilds, 'and their organization greatly resembled that 
of the merchant guilds. 

The entire trade of the city was regulated entirely by these 
trade guilds, and every one who wished to enter a certain 
trade had to follow strictly certain regulations. His first 
position was that of apprentice. For a certain number of 
years, depending upon the difficulty and importance of the 
trade, he spent his time in learning the trade and received no 
wages. At the end of this period of probation he became a 
journeyman, and as such he could earn wages, but could not 
carry on business by himself; he was still forced to work for 
some master. Finally he became a master-workman and 
could set up a shop on his own account. 

The local feeling and tradition that resulted from corporate 
town life were exceedingly strong. In the same way that the 
knights formed among themselves a caste of so distinct a 
type that there was, for example, a far stronger feeling of 
sympathy between an English knight and a French knight 
than between an English knight and an English peasant, so 
it was with the people of the towns. A tradesman from Lon- 
don would be considered a foreigner in the town of Bristol, 
and the towns either singly or associated, would often wage 
petty wars entirely on their own account. 

194. Political Power of the Towns. — When, therefore, the 
towns rose to the height of their power they began to play an 
important part in the history. of Europe. Already the league 
of towns in northern Italy decided the contest between pope 
and emperor in favor of the former. And there were also 
other leagues. Perhaps the most important of all was the 
Hanseatic League, which was a union of the German towns 



INFLUENCE OF TOWNS 149 

chiefly in the interests of trade. ]\Iany of the existing towns 
in Germany belonged to this league. Lubeck was considered 
the capital towai of the league, but other towns like Cologne, 
Brunswick, and Hamburg were important centers. The 
league had also important settlements in other countries. In 
London, the Steelyard, near London bridge, was one of these 
settlements, and another could be found as far east as Nov- 
gorod — still one of the most commercial towns of Russia, 
and celebrated for its annual fair. The Hanseatic League 
soon acquired great political importance. Its ships practi- 
cally policed the seas and its men of war conveyed the mer- 
chant vessels from port to port. It was able to defy even the 
strongest of nations. It warred successfully against England 
and w^as able to dictate to that country its own terms, while 
in a war against Denmark it succeeded in procuring that in 
future all new Danish monarchs must obtain the sanction of 
the league previous to ascending the throne. 

195. Civilizing Effects of Towns. — This power that was 
exerted by the leagues of the towns was generally beneficial 
to Europe. It secured the triumph of law and order. When 
large towns all over the continent were engaged in important 
financial transactions it became necessary that there should 
be a universal and efficient code of law that might settle dis- 
putes and uphold credit, and in this direction the towns were 
constantly using their influence. The code of law they used 
was the Roman law codified by Justinian, which was excep- 
tionally strong on its commercial side and soon found favor 
throughout Italy and the other parts of Europe. 

The towns also exercised an important indirect influence 
through their economic activity. Owing to the widening of 
markets, and the greater intercourse between distant parts, 
money began to assume a greater importance as a common 
means of exchange. This meant a gradually weakening of 



150 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

the essential elements of feudalism. A landowner would 
often accept money instead of material services and this of 
itself tended to place the tenant in a more independent posi- 
tion, while the sovereign of a country would often adopt a 
similar policy on a larger scale. Thus by degrees the king 
instead of relying for the defence of the kingdom on the mili- 
tary service of his tenants began to depend upon a system of 
taxation which secured to him the permanent services of a 
large standing army. 

196. Rise of the " Third Estate." — Finally the rise of the 
towns meant the rise of a third element in the political power, 
namely the third estate. Hitherto there had been only the 

. two estates, namely those of the clergy and of nobility. But 
now^'*t^ 4Jc:ople7 -owing to the rising importance of commerce 
and money, acquired a share in controlling the destinies of 
the nation. Nor were they unfit for the task before them. 
The inhabitants of the cities and of the towns were quite 
abreast of the learning of the times in its most practical 
forms. In nearly every city and town there were schools, 
mostly conducted by lay teachers, in which reading, writing, 
and arithmetic were taught, and also the elements of Latin, 
history, and geography. At first there were no special 
buildings set apart for schools, the instruction being given 
in the church or some municipal building. But towards the 
close of the fifteenth century, the schoolhouse formed a con- 
spicuous feature of the town. The education that was given, 
though simple, seems to have been thorough, and in some 
cities, like Venice, the inhabitants seemed to have attained a 
high standard of classic and philosophic culture. 

197. The Universities. — The twelfth century was remark- 
able for its intellectual movements. Until that time educa- 
tion was of a narrow and stereotyped character. Beside the 



SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES 151 

city and town schools, which were of later origin, there were 
the monastic, the cathedral, and the parochial schools. These 
schools were almost exclusively in the hands of the clergy, and 
the education given was primarily for ecclesiastical purposes. 
Seven years were spent in the study of the seven liberal arts ; 
these were divided into the trivium, consisting of Latin gram- 
mar, logic, and rhetoric, and the quadrivium, consisting of 
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. 

198. Schools of Knighthood, — It would, however, be un- 
fair to consider the education of the early middle ages as 
being either purely ecclesiastical or academic. The school in 
which the knight was brought up laid particular stress on 
things that might be overlooked by the ordinary cleric. A 
healthy physique, a just appreciation of the courtesies of life, 
and an acquaintance with one's native tongue, were the chief 
elements of knightly education. Much stress seems to have 
been laid upon what we consider as quite the modern side of 
our educational system. The questions of feudal law and 
practice were also made familiar to the young knight. 

igg. The Rise of the Universities, — During the twelfth 
century, however, there took place a revolution in the educa- 
tional life of Europe. The purely local element became quite 
subordinate and there came to be founded large associations 
of teachers and scholars, assembled from all parts of the 
world, and forming distinct corporations of their own called 
universities. These universities enjoyed distinct rights of 
self-government, which were afterwards generally secured to 
them by letters patent from the pope or from some temporal 
prince. Usually the administration of the affairs of the uni- 
versity was entrusted entirely to the students who could even 
regulate the length of the hours of lecture and had jurisdic- 
tion to punish any of their body who had committed any 



152 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

offence. The universities were extremely democratic in their 
principles. No distinction was recognized save that of learn- 
ing, and the wealthiest prince associated with the poorest 
prince on an equal footing. Perhaps there was no agency so 
potent as that of the universities in breaking down the barriers 
of class distinction created by medieval society. 

Most of the universities at their rise seem to have acquired 
fame owing to proficiency in some branch of knowledge; 
much in the same way as students at the present day are 
drawn to one or other of the German universities in order to 
join in the benefits of specialization in some particular 
branch, so students would flock from remotest parts of Chris- 
tendom in order to sit at the feet of some great doctor, 
learned in some particular branch. The most important sub- 
jects that then constituted the final end of university teaching 
were medicine, law, and theology, and to these three subjects 
corresponded the three universities of Salerno, Bologna, and 
Paris. 

200. University of Salerno. — Most monasteries in the mid- 
dle ages had a little library of medicine and their novices 
were also instructed in the rudiments of this science. The 
medical school at Salerno had already achieved wide-spread 
celebrity. Under Frederick II it had acquired an existence 
of its own apart from the monastery and obtained such im- 
portant recognition that none were allowed to practice medi- 
cine without a license from its doctors. It is also interesting 
to observe that even at Salerno general culture was not neg- 
lected, since previous to entering upon the medical course, 
three years had to be spent in the study of humanities. 

201. University of Bologna. — The most important univer- 
sity in Italy was that of Bologna, which became the most 
famous law school of Europe. We have already seen that 



THE UNIVERSITIES 1 53 

the towns made imperative the use of some common code of 
law and that the code in question was that of the Roman law 
edited by Justinian. Irnerius, a jurist under Countess Ma- 
tilda, became famous at Bologna for his lectures on law, and 
soon Bologna became the central law school of Europe, its 
law_yers teaching and expounding the civil law in almost 
every town of Christendom. But besides the civil law there 
was also the study of church or canon law, and in ecclesias- 
tical circles one sure way to distinction was by becoming an 
eminent canonist. The chief compilation of canon law, was 
Gratian's decrees, which became the recognized code in ec- 
clesiastical jurisprudence. Gratian himself who compiled the 
work, also lectured at Bologna and thus became the rival of 
Irnerius. It must be admitted that the study of canon law- 
was by far the more practical of the two ; for the empire, 
from which emanated the civil theory, had become a mere 
theory, while the papacy and the church councils, from which 
issued the canon law, were yet living facts. 

202. University of Paris. — While the university at Sa- 
lerno was distinguished for its study of medicine, and that at 
Bologna for the study of law, the University of Paris became 
famous as the central theolog'ical school of Christendom. 
Unlike most of the other universities, the Paris University 
was an association of the teachers only, and did not comprise 
the students, probably owing to the youth of those who at- 
tended. 

In the University of Paris there were four faculties — those 
of theology, canon law, medicine and arts. The arts were 
divided into the old-fashioned trivium and quadrivium and 
were considered a necessary preliminary to any of the other 
faculties. The instruction consisted of lectures and disputa- 
tions. In each faculty there were three degrees — Bachelor, 
Licentiate, and Doctor or Master. For the M. A. a course 



154 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

of three years and a minimum age of twenty-one years were 
required, while five years was the condition for the first degree 
in theology. Over each faculty there was a dean. The gov- 
erning executive consisted of the deans of the four faculties 
who met in congregation and were presided over by the vice- 
chancellor. Another term, familiar to those acquainted with 
Oxford University, was that of Proctor. This official in the 
Paris University was responsible for the good conduct of the 
students, who were divided into groups according to nation- 
alities, each group being governed by its own proctor. 

203. Schools of Theology in the Church, — The man who 
more than any other inaugurated the greatness of the Paris 
University was Peter Abelard. In all ages of Church's his- 
tory there have been within the fold of the Church two dis- 
tinct schools of thought. There is the conservative school of 
thought that clings to the old beaten paths of tradition, and 
there is the liberal and progressive school which, while not 
professing to reject in any way the essentials of Christianity, 
yet tries to deal with spiritual problems from the most modern 
and progressive point of view. The leaders of this liberal 
party are often men of genius, but are apt to incur suspicion 
since many of them have deviated from the strict path of 
orthodoxy. Peter Abelard was one of these. He not only 
taught the importance of reason even in religious matters 
but he went still further, and making an abuse even of that 
system of reason which he taught denied the doctrine of trin- 
ity. His two chief opponents were St. Norbert and St. Ber- 
nard, the leaders of the conservative school. Eventually, he 
was condemned by the pope. He then retired to Cluny where 
he died after recanting his errors. But Abelard's disciples 
still kept up the reputation of the University of Paris for 
learning and eloquence. Arnold of Brescia, who taught the 
practical consequences of Abelard's doctrines, also became ob- 



THE FRIARS 1 55 

noxious to authority, and after leading the revolutionists of 
Rome against the pope was condemned to death as a heretic. 
But there were others among Abelard's disciples, equally fa- 
mous but who were regarded as champions of orthodoxy. 
Amongst these was Peter the Lombard, the celebrated author 
of " The Sentences." 

There is little doubt but that the clerical element predomi- 
nated in the University of Paris, and even in many other 
places the clerical element was closely connected with the 
growth and constitution of the uni\-ersily. 

204. Friars and the Universities. — At Paris and Oxford, 
this was largely owing to the struggle that arose over the 
pri\ileges and claims of the new mendicant orders of the 
Franciscans and of the Dominicans. Many of the university 
statutes and regulations trace their origin to the desire of de- 
fining exactly the relations of the friars with the university, 
and the collegiate system itself can be traced back to the col- 
leges of the older religious orders. 

205. The Importance of the Friars as a connecting line be- 
tween the Church and the university affords a luminous il- 
lustration of the more general work done by the friars dur- 
ing the later middle ages. Until then, the religious life 
strictly so called, had affected the world only indirectly. The 
monk, v.-hether he belonged to the Cluniac type or to the later 
reformed congregations of the Cistercians or Carthusians, was 
absolutely secluded from the world and he could only affect 
it by his prayers and the power of his example. On the other 
hand, the canons, though assuming religious vows, and at 
the same time living in the world, did not practice that severe 
poverty and complete renunciation that characterized the 
older monk. Anyhow their work was that of the ordinary 
ministry of the church, and they were confined to one particu- 



156 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

lar locality. There were yet no missionaries strictly so called, 
and yet some activity of this kind had become absolutely 
necessary. Moreover, something else was needed besides the 
routine life of the canon regular. The demand for some new 
kind of spiritual activity was supplied by the friars who w^ere 
wandering missionaries, practicing the most complete renun- 
ciation, and yet mixing in the spirit of fraternal love with all 
men, the highest and the lowest, the richest and the poorest. 




All-Sours College at Oxford. 



206. The Franciscans. — The first of the orders of the 
friars was that of the Franciscans, named after their founder, 
St. Francis. St. Francis was born in 1182 and w^as the son 
of a travelling merchant. His early years were spent in a 
careless life taken up wdth the cares and pleasures of the 
world, but heavy afflictions fell upon him and caused him to 
enter into himself and to lead a new life. He abandoned all 
his worldly goods and gave himself up to a life of penance 



THE FRANCISCANS 157 

and self-denial. The fame of his sanctity soon drew others 
around him and thus was formed the nucleus of the new order. 
At first there was no attempt at any fixed and definite organ- 
ization. The association that was formed was merely the re- 
sult of a providential evolution, and its members in many 
things only copied the virtues of the previous existing orders. 
Prayer, fasting, mortification, obedience were all practiced 
by the Franciscans to a ver}^ high degree. There were, how- 
ever, two characteristics in which the Franciscans considerably 
differed from the other religious foundations. These were 
their corporate poverty and their personal service to man- 
kind. 

207. Peculiar Characteristics of the Franciscan Order. — 
Hitherto, individual poverty had been deemed sufficient. 
While the individual monk must both in spirit and in reality 
deprive himself of all worldly treasure, the monastery itself, 
the association of monks, might hold any amount of property. 
The results of this distinction were bad. Abbeys and priories 
in the pursuit and management of vast estates easily lost 
tb.eir fer\()r, and the sense of corporate ownership was emi- 
nently detrimental to the spirit of poverty. Francis and his 
followers now even renounced corporate wealth, and preferred 
to depend for their subsistence upon the daily alms of the 
faithful. 

Besides this heroic practice of poverty the Franciscans 
were also distinguished by the readiness with which they en- 
gaged in all works of charity both spiritual and temporal. 
Far from claiming any exemption from episcopal jurisdiction 
they placed themselves entirely at the disposal of the bishops, 
who might use them in diocesan and parochial work according 
as they thought fit. Many of the secular clergy objected to 
the presence of the friars but the friars maintained that their 
purpose was merely to perform those duties that were omitted 



158 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

either owing' to the deficiency of the pastors or to the negli- 
gence of those in charge. 

Besides ordinary practical work, the friars held what would 
be called missionary revivals. Wandering through the public 
roads and streets, they collected round them large crowds to 
whom they preached with simplicity and earnestness the truths 
of faith. Besides all this the Franciscan was a philanthropist 
He usually dwelt in the poorest part of the city in order to 
console and minister to his poor brethren, and his presence 
was most familiar w'here fever or leprosy was claiming its 
victims. 

208. Franciscan Rule. — In the year 12 10 St. Francis drew 
up a rule for his order. It contained forty-five precepts of 
which tw^enty-seven were obligatory under pain of mortal sin 
and eighteen under pain of venial sin. Among the precepts 
of the first class the following are the important : The prohibi- 
tion of the use of money, the recitation of the Divine Office, 
and the performance of certain fasts throughout the year. 
After the completion of the rule, St. Francis went to Rome 
to seek the approval of the pope, then Innocent III. At first, 
the pope refused to see him, but after a dream in which the 
pope saw^ the tottering walls of the Lateran supported by the 
friars, he admitted Francis to his presence and by word of 
mouth solemnly approved of the order. 

The rule was of the simplest kind and made no provision 
for a hierarchy of officials nor for those minute details that 
are so necessary in any large body of men in order to secure 
permanent harmony and cohesion. St. Francis had always 
dreaded anything like the stereotyped rule that w-as found in 
the other orders. The abuses of formality and officialism that 
had so often resulted, were fatal to real spirituality, and he 
preferred to let the relations betw^een the memliers of the 
order, as well as the routine of its daily life flow naturally 



THE FRANCISCANS 1 59 

from virtuous impulses. No doubt, this theory is sound for 
a small body of known and reliable men, but when it came to 
be applied to a large body of men of different characters and 
dispositions it soon became evident that there was also needed 
some system of method and organization. 

209. The Conventuals. — There were two men who speedily 
came into prominence as modifiers of the original rule of St. 
Francis. These men were Brother Elias of Cortona and Car- 
dinal Ugolino who afterwards became Pope Gregory IX. 
They not only prescribed a more minute and definite rule for 
the government of the order but also introduced some modi- 
fications into Francis's complete system of corporate poverty, 
by permitting the erection of churches and convents. This 
party among the Franciscans came to be known as the Con- 
ventuals, and they were always bitterly opposed by the stricter 
part called the Observants who clung to the original simplicity 
and absolute poverty of St. Francis. 

210. Third Order of St. Francis. — Not long after the 
foundation of the order of Franciscans cr Grey Friars, as they 
were sometimes called from the color of their habit, a new 
branch of the same order was founded called the Third Order 
of St. Francis. Its members were allowed to live in the world 
and fulfil their ordinary avocations but were obliged to 
undergo one year's novitiate, perform certain fasts and ab- 
stinences, and to practice certain virtues. Some of the most 
distinguished persons in Medieval History belonged to the 
Third Order, among whom were the Emperor Charles IV, 
St. Louis of France, Elizabeth, queen of Portugal, and 
Christopher Columbus. But it was chiefly the middle class 
that enrolled themselves among its members, and thus the 
Third Order soon acquired political importance. It had a 
considerable number of members scattered throughout the 



l6o IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

towns of Italy who naturally championed the cause of the 
Pope against that of the emperor Frederick II. 

211. The Dominicans. — The next great order of friars 
after the Franciscans was that of the Dominicans, called from 
their habit the White Friars. 

St. Dominic was born in Spain in 1170. When twenty- 
eight years old, he became a canon regular, and soon after- 
ward accompanied his bishop to France. During his stay 
there he became profoundly impressed with the growing power 
and influence of the Albigensian heresy. In order to prevent 
the extension of this heresy in southern France, he founded a 
religious institution in Toulouse consisting of zealous preach- 
ers who by the fire of their charity might convert the heretics 
and confirm those who were wavering in the faith. He drew 
up a rule which consisted partly of the rule of St. Augustine 
and partly of certain constitutions of his own. In 12 17 the 
rule was solemnly approved by Pope Honorius III and the 
new order became known as the order of Friars Preachers. 

212. Spirit of the Dominican Order. — The spirit of the 
new order was from the very first different from that of the 
Franciscans. It was essentially academic, and aimed at reach- 
ing the heart not so much through the emotions as through 
reason and conviction. The Dominicans soon came in close 
touch with the universities. Both at Paris and at Cologne 
the Friars Preachers occupied the most important chairs. At 
the latter city, Albertus Magnus astonished everyone by the 
depth of his knowledge and the wideness of his erudition. 
But his fame was soon eclipsed by one still greater, the great 
St. Thomas of Aquin, whose Summa Theologica traversed 
the whole range of philosophy and theology. 

213. Intellectual Labors of the Friars. — It was not long 
before the Franciscans also imitated the Dominicans in the 



1 



SCHOLASTICISM l6l 

intellectual labors. The names of Roger Bacon, Duns Scotus, 
and William Ockham spread the fame of the Franciscan 
school at Oxford throughout Christendom, while at the same 
time there also grew up a school of Franciscan literary writ- 
ers whose works are full of mystic piety and pregnant with 
deep emotion. The two hymns, the " Stabat Mater " and the 
*' Dies Irae " made so familiar by musical genius were written 
by Franciscan friars and are worthy to be placed on a level 
\\ ith the " Panga Lingua " by St. Thomas Aquinas. 

The general influence of the friars on the universities and 
on the general state of culture in Europe can scarcely be over- 
estimated; not only did the study of theology assert for itself 
a very important place in the curriculum of studies but the 
whole method of learning underwent an alteration. 

214. Scholasticism which was the fashion of learning in- 
troduced by the friars derives its peculiarity not so much from 
the subject matter which was wilder than most people think 
as from its method. Great stress was laid on clear and 
forcible reasoning, while accuracy of expression and mental 
force of analysis and subtlety of distinction were cultivated to 
the fullest extent. Even the beginnings of modern science 
owe a great deal to the mental training imparted by the early 
scholastics. 

From another point of view, the influence of the friars was 
beneficial in promoting the study of the vernacular. Sermons 
were given to the people in their native language, sermons 
that were often conveyed with great force and eloquence of 
style, while a great number <if religious poems often revealed 
to the people hitherto unsuspected beauties even in the ordi- 
nary vehicle of daily speech. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Contact between Eastern and \\^estern civilization — Immedi- 
ate causes of dispute between Turks and Christians — General 



1 62 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

causes of the crusades — Beginning of the First Crusade — 
Character and leaders of the First Crusade — Advance of the 
First Crusade and its contact with the Eastern Emperor — Bat- 
tles of the First Crusade — Foundation of the Latin kingdom of 
Jerusalem — Second Crusade — Its origin, leaders, and failure 
— Character and leaders of the Third Crusade — Practical re- 
sults of the Third Crusade — Fourth Crusade — Its origin and 
Leaders — Capture of the city of Constantinople — Foundation 
of the Latin kingdom of Constantinople — Fifth Crusade — Its 
origin, leader, and importance — Sixth and Seventh Crusades — 
Failure of Louis VII — General results of the crusading move- 
ments — Changes in society — New military orders — Changes 
in commerce and trade — Introduction of the art of heraldry — 
General and particular causes of the rise of the towns — Grow- 
ing financial and political importance of the towns — Merchant 
guilds and craft guilds — Regulation of the guilds — Corporate 
life in the towns — Important leagues of the towns — Commer- 
cial law started by the towns — The weakening eflfect on feudal- 
ism caused by the towns — The rise of the third estate — Char- 
acter of the schools of the medieval period — Elements of 
knightly education — Revolution in the educational system — 
Rise of the universities — Their specialization in certain branches 
— • The medieval school at Salerno — Law school at Bologna — 
University of Paris — Its constitution, faculty, and nature of its 
degrees — Peter Abelard, and the liberal school — Influence of 
the friars in the universities — St. Francis, the founder of the 
Franciscans — Nature of corporate poverty — Franciscans ready 
for any work of charity — Rule of St. Francis and its approval 
by Pope Innocent III — Bro. Elias and Pope Gregory IX — 
The Observants and the Conventuals — Third Order of St. 
Francis — St. Dominic founder of the Dominican order — Dif- 
ference between the Dominican and Franciscan spirit — Writ- 
ings of the friars — Rise of scholasticism — Influence of the 
friars on the Vernacular. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Tout, Empire and Papacy; Archer and Kingsford, The Crusades; 
Gray, the Children's Crusade; Lane Poole, Saladin; Cox, Crusades; 
Oman, Art of War, hook VI, chapter VI; Oman, Byzantine Empire; 
MiCHAUD, History of Crusades; Lecky, History of European Morals: 
Pears, Fall of Constantinople; Joinville, Memoirs of St. Louis; Alzog, 
Church History; Perry, St. Louis; Jones, Civilization during Middle 
Ages; Ashley, Economic History; Green, Town life in Fifteenth Cen- 



GENERAL REFERENCE 1 63 

tury ; Zimmern, The Hanse Toivns; Stubbs, Select Charters, p. 108; 
Green, History of English -People ; Cross, The Guild Merchants; Laurie, 
Rise and Constitution of the Universities; Rashdall, Universities of 
Europe in Middle Ages; Mullinger, University of Cambridge ; Compayre, 
Abelard and the Origin of the Universities; Jessupp, Coming of the 
Friars; Sabatier, St. Francis of Assisi; Green, History of the English 
People; Alzog, Church History; Wharton, History of English Poetry; 
Gro. Leo, Spirit of Perfection; Milman, Latin Christianity ; Jean d'Ibe- 
line. Livre dcs Assises et Usages du Royaume de Jerusalem. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE 

215. Centralizing Influences in France. — During the con- 
test between the empire and the papacy France had been slowly 
growing into a united nation, and while both Germany and 
Italy had ended by being hopelessly split into independent 
provinces the Capetian dynasty was bringing together the 
separate dukedoms of France by the unifying influence of 
royal power. In France, as elsewhere, the crusades had 
tended to lesson the power of the feudal barons and to 
strengthen proportionally the centralizing power of the king. 
At the same time, various concurrent causes were fast building 
up the internal greatness aftd prosperity of France. The uni- 
versity of France, which had a levelling and unifying influence 
on all classes of French society, the rise of the towns, the 
growth of commerce which bettered the condition of the 
people, and the wandering friars, who by their sermons and 
writings w^ere hastening the spread of one common vernacular 
— all these causes were able to exercise their own influence 
without being constantly neutralized by constant sedition and 
warfare. 

But even so the results would not have shown themselves 
so quickly if there had not been one definite line of policy 
adopted by a succession of sagacious and able monarchs, 

216. Difficulties of the Early Capetian Kings, — The posi- 
tion of the early Capetian king was difticult and complicated. 
Even in his feudal domain he was not supreme master, for the 
minor barons were constantly striving to assert their inde- 
pendence of roval authority. Against the castles of these 

165 



1 66 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE 

recalcitrant nobles the king had a very small force at his dis- 
posal, since he had neither a standing army nor any definite 
sonrce of revenue with which to hire soldiers. Naturally 
matters were still worse outside the king's own personal do- 
main. The power of the great feudatories in the north and 
south was almost equal to his own and if they had acted 
together he would have been absolutely powerless. Nor was 
this -all. At least one-half of French territory was in the 
hands of the hostile English. During the reign of Henry II. 
all the western part of France was in English hands, and 
France was even cut off from communication with the western 
seas. However, even supposing all these difiiculties were al- 
ready surmounted there was still wanting some machinery of 
government by wdiich both legally and constitutionally, with- 
out friction, the royal power might exercise itself in the dif- 
ferent parts of the kingdom. 

The task therefore which confronted the French kings was 
of a threefold nature, first, to assert their power in their own 
personal domain, secondly, to absorb into the royal domain the 
powerful independent feudatories, and thirdly, to build up the 
machinery of monarchical government. 

217. Louis VI. — The first part of the task was undertaken 
successfully by Louis VI (1108-1137). Though greedy and 
sensual, he was a strenuous fighter and had sufficient political 
sagacity to choose and trust able ministers. He lead a series 
of expeditions gainst the brigand barons, and completely 
crushed Flugh du Puiset who w^as the most formidable of his 
enemies. One by one the hostile castles that had prevented 
free intercommunication were taken, and commerce was able 
to follow its lawful routes. By degrees the subjugation of the 
nobles lead to a change even in the internal administration of 
the kingdom. The assembly of turbulent nobles could now be 
dispensed with, and Louis could entrust the power of adminis- 



PHILIP AUGUSTUS 1 67 

tration to officials entirely dependent upon himself. Among 
these were the able Suger and three brothers of the name of 
Garlande. 

Louis had also the help of the clergy and of the common 
people, whose interests had suffered at the hands of the baro- 
nial oppressors. Even in Louis's time the commercial move- 
ment was in evidence, and by giving a large number of 
charters, he made himself the patron and protector of the 
towns. A happy instinct thus enabled him to avoid the mis- 
take made by Barbarossa, who only a few years later by try- 
ing to bar the irresistible wave of commercial progress, found 
his cherished projects in Italy completely shattered. 

218. Philip Augustus. — This prudent policy of Louis VL — 
a combination of political sagacity and martial activity was 
continued under his successors, especially Philip Augustus 
( 1 180-1223). Even more than Louis, he posed as the pro- 
tector of the commercial classes against the barons, while the 
promotion of foreign commerce raised the towns to a position 
of even greater importance. It was under Philip Augustus 
that Paris, the central town of the royal domain, became the 
important city that it is to-day. Even its material plan and 
greatness dated from that time. Then, as now, in the center 
was the Isle of the Seine on which were situated the Cathedral 
of Notre-Dame; on the right bank of the same river was the 
University with its famous residential colleges, while on the 
left were the residential and mercantile quarters. 

Besides consolidating the royal power within the borders 
of its own domain, the next step was to absorb into the French 
monarchy the lands of the large outside fiefs, and especially 
the huge western territory occupied by the English. The ac- 
complishment of this more ardous task was brought about 
partly by a combination of circumstances, but perhaps still 
more by the adroit policy of the French kings. 



1 68 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE 

219. Relations With England. — The one great mistake 
made by Louis VI after the loss of his able minister Suger had 
been the divorce of his wife Elinor of Aquitaine, which meant 
not only the loss to himself of that duchy but also the gain of 
it to England, owing to the marriage of Elinor to Henry IT. 
Indeed, if it had not been that Henry's hands were kept busy 
by his quarrels with St. Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of 
Canterbury, by difficulties in Scotland, and by the turbulence 
of his own sons, the English encroachments on French soil 
might have gone on to an indefinite extent. But besides 
these weak points in the enemy's armor, the death of Louis 
VI raised to the throne the able Philip Augustus who even 
better than Louis VI. knew how to grapple with the difficul- 
ties of the situation. 

There were constant c[uarrels between Henry II and his 
sons, and PhiHp used these for his own advantage. He allied 
himself with Henry's son, the future Richard I., who had been 
entrusted by his father with the duchy of Aquitaine. The 
united forces of the French king and of the rebellious son 
drove Henry II back into Normandy, where he died — his 
end being hastened by grief and shame at the treachery of his 
own children. Then when Richard became king, Philip in- 
trigued with John, the brother of Richard. Here, however, 
he received a partial check owing to the warlike ability of 
Richard. But when Richard died and his brother John suc- 
ceeded then the most favorable opportunity of all presented 
itself. John's own foul and unscrupulous character, his sup- 
posed murder of his nephew Arthur of Brittany, his marriage 
with the betrothed bride of one of Philip's vassals, his quarrel 
with the powerful Innocent III, and more than all, the dis- 
putes between himself and his barons (over such questions 
as taxation and the liberty of the subject) gave Philip an 
overwhelming advantage. Before the end of John's reign, 
Maine, Anjou, and Touraine had passed from English into 



HERESIES IN THE SOUTH 1 69 

French hands and the death of Elinor also severed the tinal 
tie between the duchy of Aquitaine and England. Only the 
southwestern provinces still remained faithful, perhaps for 
commercial reasons, for Guienne and Gascony were mainly de- 
pendent upon England for their trade in salt and wine. 

The personal domain of the kings of France now for the 
first time surpassed all the others in extent and importance, 
and Philip was in possession of ample means for extending 
his power o\er the other feudatories of France. 

220. Influence of the Heresies in the South. — In this again 
the French king was helped by outside circumstances. It was 
in the south of France that the old feudal spirit of inde- 
pendence was strongest and that the nobles were mostly in op- 
position to the king, and it was precisely here in the enemy's 
stronghold that fortune mostly favored the royal cause. The 
Albigensian heresy, like the heresy of the Catharites and Pata- 
rini was an ofifspring- of Arianism. Its doctrines were vari- 
ous and hard to define, but its rejection of the authority of the 
Church marked it out for evident condemnation. The coim- 
try of Toulouse especially was infected with this heresy and 
even Count Raymond of Toulouse was at first one of its zeal- 
ous adherents. Pope Innocent III sent preachers into the 
province to try and extirpate the heresy by force of persuasion 
and argument. Init in \ain. and furthermore Raymond was 
suspected of ha\ing cimnixed at the murder of one of the 
papal representatives. A crusade was now proclaimed in 
1208, and the leader of the crusading forces was Simon de 
Montfort. The heretic and anti-monarchical barons were sub- 
dued, RayuKjnd was driven out of his province, and Simon 
himself did homage to the king of France for the conquered 
territory. Only for a time did Raymond manage to regain 
possession of his domiiiion. In <he coitrse of another crusade, 
preached by Honorius III, the French king Louis VIII man- 



I70 



THE DEl'ELOPMENT OF FRANCE 



aged to secure possession of a good part of Languedoc while 
the ruin of the local barons meant the future triumph of 
l''rench monarchy. 



221. The Royal Appanages. — It now remains to be seen 
how the direct action of the French kings helped to absorb the 
great feudal states into the French monarchy. There was in 
fact only one practical course to pursue and that was to grant 
to the members of the royal family certain districts, called 
appenages, to rule over and, and after thus providing them 
with wealth and influence to bring about marriage connections 
between these royal children and the heiresses of the outside 
feudatories. To have tried to accomplish this result by force 
oi conquest would have been exceedingly risky, whereas this, 
though a slower policy, was surer in its aim. Much has been 
said against this distribution of appenages among the royal 
children, but on the whole the king was yet scarcely strong 
enough to govern personally his vast domain, and on the other 
hand, if the royal children were still left in their old condition 
of penurious weakness and inferiority it would have been dif- 
hcult to bring about these marriages which were the best means 
for bringing eventually into the French monarchy so many of 
the vast feudatory estates. 

Already by the will of Louis VIII, Robert, his second son, 
had been made Count of Artois, Alphonse, his third son, 
Count of Poitou, and Charles, the youngest son, Count of 
Anjou and Maine. In 1229, during the reign of Louis IX, 
it was provided by the treaty of Meaux that Raymond, Count 
of Toulouse, should be allowed to retain his country on con- 
dition that he married his daughter and heiress to the afore- 
said Alphonse, Count of Poitou. After a successful marriage 
had thus been arranged for Count Alphonse, Charles of Anjou, 
the youngest son, contracted a marriage with Beatrice, daugh- 
ter of Ravmond, Count of Provence, and this circumstance 



UNIFICATION IN FRANCE l/l 

also secured to the royal house the possession of a rich estate 
in the south. It was not long before Northern influence and 
manners completely invaded the hitherto separatist land of the 
South. Even in the very language and in the architecture of 
the country the change made itself felt, the Langue d'oc being- 
supplanted by the harder dialect of the Lange d'oui, and the 
Romanesque style of building yielding to the pointed arch and 
flying buttress of the Gothic style of the North. 

222. Louis IX pursued the same policy as Louis VITI. 
Appenages were granted to Louis' two younger sons. Peter 
became Count of Alencon and Robert became Count of Cler- 
ment-en-Beauvaisis. The usual successful marriage soon fol- 
lowed, and Robert, by marrying the heiress of the great 
Bourbon feudatory, extended the influence of the Capetian 
house in the east of France. 

We may sum up by saying that the matrimonial policy of 
Louis Vin. and of his son Louis IX. succeeded in drawing 
into the French monarchy all the lands of Auvergne, Toulouse 
and Provence in the south of France, and the important 
Bourbon state in the east. At the same time, the immediate 
practical results were seen in the reduction of the hitherto inde- 
pendent power of the bishops and nobles, the curtailment of the 
local autonomy of the towns, and the general establishment of 
law and order. In the east, the kings of France had in the 
Bourbon estates a convenient means of checking the danger- 
ously growing power of the Duchy of Burgundy. 

223. Internal Consolidations of France. — We now come 

to the third and last step in the growth and consolidation of 
the French Monarchy and that was the establishment of some 
machinery of government by which the royal jurisdiction 
might be exercised in the vast acquisitions that had been thus 
made by the Capetian House. 



172 THE DEJ'ELOPMENT OF FRANCE 

Here also, we find a remarkable continuity in the policy of 
the French kings. They all seemed to have agreed on the 
following points : to bring the towns within the sphere of royal 
influence by a judicious mixture of firmness and royal patron- 
age, to curtail the local power of the clergy and nobles and 
bring them into subjection to the crown, to carry on the ad- 
ministrative business of the country through a hierarchy of 
royal officers, and finally to make the king the actual supreme 
source of all authority, legislative, political, and executive. 

224. Development of Administrative Machinery. — Already 
during the reigns of Louis VI and Louis VII royal judges 
were sent to administer justice throughout the kingdom, while 
local officers, called prevots, administered the king's estates. 
Under Philip the Second this system was improved and ampli- 
fied. It was found that the prevots, like the local sheriffs in 
England, could not always be trusted, so new officers were 
appointed called Baillis, wdio were superior in authority to the 
prevots. Under Philip II, the towns also were brought as 
much as possible within the sphere of royal influence by the 
granting of charters and by other signs of royal protection 
and favor. 

It w^as not. however, till the time of Louis IX (1220) that 
the administrative machinery seems to have arrived at ma- 
turity. Important developments now took place both in the 
local and central system of government. Since the Baillis 
had shown themselves liable to the same defects as the prevots, 
tending to become independent local magnates, new royal of- 
ficers were appointed called enquesteurs. Their duties re- 
sembled those of the Carolingian Missi Dominici. They had 
to inquire into and to correct the abuses of local officials, and 
they thus formed a connecting link between the circumference 
and the center of the constitutional system of government. 
The restraints that in consequence of the reports of the en- 



CENTRAL GOVERNMENT 1 73 

questeurs, were imposed on the baillis not only testify to 
previous abuses but also show the settled policy of the king to 
make the local officer dependent wholly upon him. The bailli 
was forbidden to marry anyone in his bailiwick, to surround 
himself with his relatives or give office to them ; he was 
ordered to hold court regularly and in person, and to send to 
the king a report of the proceedings, while before assuming 
office at all, he was required to take oath that he would pre- 
serve the rights of the king and the local liberties of the 
place. 

225. Central System of Government. — With regard to the 
central system of government, an increased area of jurisdic- 
tion and the more complicated work that it entailed brought 
about a corresponding division of labor. We have already 
seen this in England, where the legislative body became com- 
pletely severed from the judicial, which was then subdivided 
into the courts of King's Bench, Exchequer, and Common 
Pleas. A similar process now took place in France. Up to 
this time the king had been helped in his w^ork of govern- 
ment by a council that attended indiscriminately to all sorts 
of business, whether legislative, financial, or judicial. But 
now, for obvious convenience, this council was divided into 
three distinct bodies, each with a separate jurisdiction of its 
own, but all three depending upon the king. First, there was 
the Council proper, or Grand Council, wdiich had to perform 
many of those legislative and executive duties that now per- 
tain to the American Congress and Cabinet; second, there was 
the Parliament (parlcmcnt) which was really a high court of 
justice constituting a supreme court of appeal ; third, there 
was the treasury, the gois iies comptes, corresponding to the 
treasury department at Washington, that took charge of and 
manipulated all the financial business of the kingdom. By 
these various devices the king prevented the bailli from in- 
curring any obligations other than those to himself. 



174 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE 

226. Influence of Louis IX. — This framework of the 
French constitution under Louis IX was evidently constructed 
not only with a view to good government but also with the 
design of making the royal power the center and fulcrum of 
the administration in all its branches. The same design was 
kept in view in the other measures of Louis' reign. While 
always a zealous defender of the true interests and rights of 
the Church, he was equally careful that bishops and other 
clerics should keep within their own proper sphere and should 
fulfil their duties as ordinary citizens by paying taxes and 
by being amenable to the civil law. Perhaps it was partly 
the same policy that lead him to show such preference to the 
mendicant friars above the other clergy, entrusting to the friars 
many important duties and appointing one of them as his own 
confessor — a position that in France was for a long time 
of considerable political importance. Then again, even in 
financial matters, Louis contrived to weaken the independence 
of localities and strengthen the central position of the crown. 
Hitherto, the right of coinage had been allowed to a great 
number of little provinces, the result of which was a great in- 
convenience to travelers passing from one province to another; 
Louis remedied this by decreeing that the king's coinage should 
be legal tender everywhere. Naturally, the local coinages 
tended to die out, and one common coinage took their place — 
a process which constantly symbolized far and wide the king's 
power and hastened the commercial unity of the kingdom. 

It must be borne in mind that in all these reforms the 
character of the king himself was a most important factor. 
His evident uprightness and sense of justice conciliated many 
who would otherwise have been bitter opponents; even if 
some of his measures struck at the private interests of parties 
and individuals, it was universally recognized that he was 
actuated by a sincere desire to promote the general welfare of 
the kingdom. 



\ 



POSITION OF FRANCE 175 

227. Philip III. — The poHcy of Louis IX was continued 
under his successors, though certain portions of it were more 
emphasized than others. PhiHp III (1270), his immediate 
successor, still further lessened the power of the nobles and 
increased the number of appeals to the parlement. He also 
reduced the political privileges of the Church. In France, as 
in England, the immunity given to clerical offenders had pro- 
duced grave abuses; this immunity he now restricted, and in 
the matter of taxes and the public contributions he forced the 
Church to take a greater share in bearing the financial burden 
of the ordinary citizens. 

228. Philip IV. — Under Philip IV (1285) an important 
addition was made to the general council of the realm. In 
1302 there were summoned for the first time representatives 
from the towns, thus adding to the two estates of the clergy 
and nobles a third estate, that of the people. The immediate 
object of the king in doing this was merely to secure money 
more easily. It was only, however, the accident of circum- 
stances that prevented the Third Estate from playing the same 
important part that it did in England, and at the time of the 
French Revolution the Third Estate actually did realize its 
possibilities in becoming the mstrument by which the balance 
of power might be transferred from the classes to the people. 

229. Position of France in Europe. — On the whole, France 
during the middle ages had been singularly favored. She 
was able to hold aloof from the struggle between the empire 
and the papacy, and, as we shall see, was able to act as me- 
diator. The menace from the foreign English rule had been 
lessened by the quarrels between the English king and his 
sons and by the discord between the king and his barons. 
The danger from the independent southern provinces had 
been greatly neutralized by their heretical tendencies that 



176 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE 

alienated from them the sympathies of orthodox Christians, 
and last, but not least, a long succession of French kings had 
adhered to the lines of a prudent and far-sighted policy. 

It now remains to consider a few episodes which throw 
light upon the corresponding influence of France in Europe, 
and which, at the same time, will form connecting links be- 
tween the history of France and that of the rest of Europe. 

230. Action of France in the Investiture Contest. — We 

have already seen that France took no part on either side dur- 
ing the investiture contest. We might add still further that 
she even played the honorable part of an intermediary. It 
was the French king that suggested to the emperor the advisa- 
bility of the compromise arrived at in the Concordat of 
Worms. He pointed out to the emperor that in France no 
harm had resulted from allowing the Church the right of in- 
vestiture with the sacred symbols, provided the state handled 
the ceremonial that pertained to the lay side of the ecclesiastical 
benefice. Again some years afterwards, during the bitter 
struggle between Frederick II and the papacy, it was a king 
of France, Louis IX, that not only adopted a position of strict 
neutrality but strove to reconcile both pope and emperor. 

When France did positively interfere in European politics, 
she assumed a strong and dignified position. When Pope 
Innocent III was deposing by force the recalcitrant Otto of 
. Germany, France arrayed itself on the side of the pope, and 
the combined French and papal forces inflicted upon Otto his 
irretrievable defeat at Bouvines in 1214. 

231. Friction Between France and the Papacy. — About 
eighty years afterwards, in 1294, France reversed her policy 
of alliance with the papacy and became its open antagonist. 
The serious friction that rose between France and the papacy 
was rendered almost inevitable by the very nature of things. 



THE POPES AT AVIGNON 1 77 

During the feudal age the local French clergy had necessarily 
enjoyed an almost complete exception from the burdens that 
were laid on the other citizens, but as France became one 
solid united nation this peculiar position allowed to the clergy 
became a stumbling block. The immediate cause of trouble 
was the question of taxation. The king alleged that the 
clergy, like other citizens, ought to bear the burdens as well 
as the privileges of citizenship, while the clergy naturally 
pleaded the peculiarity of their position as officers of the 
Church, and the force of precedent. The pope upheld the 
clergy in their resistance. \\'hen Philip IV demanded one- 
fifth from both clergy and laity alike, the clergy were able to 
fall back upon the decree clericis ad laicos which forbade any 
churchman to pay to any temporal ruler any part of the 
Church's possessions. But it soon became evident who was 
likely to get the best of the 'struggle. The king had almost 
the unanimous support of his own kingdom, both the lawyers 
and the States General approving of his action. Nogaret, the 
king's ambassador, and some of the Colonna family who were 
hostile to the pope besieged Boniface VIII at Anagni. Boni- 
face w^as overpowered, made prisoner, and after being grossly 
maltreated died a few weeks after. 

232. The Popes at Avignon. — His successor Benedict II 
lived. only one year, and in r304, when the papal throne again 
became vacant. Philip thought he would settle the question 
definitely by procuring the election of a French pope. The 
bishop of Bordeaux was accordingly elected. He assumed 
the name of Clement V (1305). Events soon justified Phil- 
ip's choice. Partly owing to the condition of anarchy pre- 
vailing at Rome, partly owing to the king's personal wish, the 
pope found it convenient to transfer the papal court to France. 
At first he had no fixed residence, but eventually he settled 
down at Avignon, in southern France, a. place which remained 




.a n 



E-E 



o 

c o 



S to 
■P M , 






SIMON DE MONTFORT 1/9 

a papal possession even down to Napoleonic times, and still 
interests the eye of the tourist with the remains of the old 
papal palace. The popes continued to reside in France for 
about seventy years from 1304 to 1377, an exile which is com- 
monly called the Babylonian Captivity. 

233. Position of the Papacy in France. — The pope's posi- 
tion then was something like what it is to-day in Italy. Avig- 
non was as much his as the Vatican palace belongs to Pius 
X, but men constantly suspected the pope of French influence. 
While no one nowadays would dream of suspecting Piux X 
of being under the influence of the Italian government, yet 
there were circumstances that justified the suspicions of the 
people of the fourteenth century. The king's domineering 
proclivity was well know^i, and the revocation of many of 
Boniface's decrees, together with the suppression of the Temp- 
lars (an act which, however, was justified by the abuses that 
had arisen in that order) could clearly be traced \o the influ- 
ence of the French court. 

234. Development of Representative Government in Eng- 
land. — The de\'elopment of England was contemporaneous 
with that of France and was carried out in some respects on 
the same lines. Under Henr}' III. the successor of the wicked 
king John, an important progress in the condition of the 
House of Commons took place. As yet onh- the barons and 
knights had attended Parliament. In 1265 Earl Simon de 
Montfort, son of the Simon who had crushed the Albigenses, 
summoned also citizens from each borough. This recognition 
of the third estate resembled that which took place in France 
in the time of Philip the Fair, but produced far more impor- 
tant results, lasting indeed all during English History. At 
first, it meant little more than the right of granting taxes, 
for the higher clergy, the barons, and citizens still sat apart, 



l8o THE DFJ'ELOPMENT OF FRANCE 

while the citizens were at lirst timid in asserting their voice; 
but when in the course of time the knights and burgesses sat 
and dehberated together then the presence of the burgesses 
perhaps more than anything else contributed to the formation 
of democratic popular government in England. 

235. Edward I. and the Parliament of 1295. — When Ed- 
ward I, the English Justinian, ascended the throne in 1272, 
the English constitution became in germ all that it is to-day. 
In the House of Commons, not only both the lesser knights 
and the burgesses attended Parliament, but the knights, who 
had hitherto been regarded as mere local deputies for pur- 
poses of taxation, now- took part in the general work of gov- 
erning the country. In 1295 Edward I introduced a further 
innovation of his own. The lower clergy were requested to 
send to the House of Commons representatives of their own. 
The clergy, however, steadily refused to avail themselves of 
this privilege. Even when the clerical representatives were 
sent they preferred to sit aloof and vote their own taxes in 
their own assemblies called convocations. Ultimately these 
convocations lost not only all political power, but even their 
right of separate self-taxation, and the minor clergy sank back 
among the general body of electors. Still the Parliament of 
1295 will ever be famous since it was then that the knights 
of the shire assumed a constant share in the administrative 
business of the country. 

236. Judicial System of Edward I. — In the political sphere, 
Edward I completed the reform of Henry II. He subdivided 
still further the functions of the administration of justice. 
He constituted himself and his council into a supreme court 
of appeal, a court that afterwards gave rise to the judicial 
powers of the Privy Council, and especially to the important 
powers of the chancellor, the presiding judge of the court of 



THE TAxtr^i^ I'OilER l8l 

chancery, with its juriscHction over widows and orphans, and 
power to deal with cases not included in the scope of the com- 
mon law. 

237. No Tax Without the Consent of the People. — During 
this reign the grand principle was again formally recognized 
that the king could not impose any fresh tax without the con- 
sent of his people. When Edward had been violating in this 
matter the provisions of the Magna Charta, he not only sol- 
emnly begged pardon of the people in the House of Commons, 
but issued a charter in which he asserted that all such un- 
warrantable taxes in the past would not be used as a precedent 
and that he would impose no fresh tax without the consent of 
his faithful commons. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Rising greatness of France under the monarchy — Difficult 
position of the early Capetian kings — Threefold task of th 
Capetian kings — Reign of Louis VI — His subduing the in- 
subordinate barons — His patronage of commerce and of the 
towns — Reign of Philip Augustus — Paris the great capital of 
France — Philip's wise policy obtains for France part of the 
English possessions — Outside circumstances help the king to 
extend his power over the South of France — The royal policy 
of granting appana.q'es and its consequences — Reign of Louis 
IX — He pursues the same policy of granting out appanages — 
Immediate results of this policy during Louis IX's time — Con- 
tinuity in the policy of the French kings also shown in perfection 
of the local system of government under Louis VIII and Louis 
IX — Parallel between the division of functions in the English 
and in the French courts of justice — Relations between the 
king and the church — The king's influence over financial matters 
— Reason of the power of Louis IX — Administration of Philip 
HI — Important addition made by Philip IV to the General 
Council of the Realm — Most important episodes in French 
foreijs:n policy — French intervention in the quarrel between the 
empire and the papacy — Philip IV quarrels with the Pope over 
the question of clerical taxation — Pope takes up his residence 
at Avignon — Results of this on French and European politics 



1 82 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE 

— Reign of Henry III in England — Under the administration 
of Simon de Montfort important changes made in parHamentary 
representation — Reign of Edward I — The clergy summoned to 
Parliament — Gradual decline of the political power of convoca- 
tion — Edward I completes the judicial reforms of Henry U — 
He signs the charter admitting the principle that no taxes should 
be imposed without the people's consent. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

KiTCHiN, History of France; Adams, French Nation; Bissey and 
Caspey, History of France; Tout, Empire and Papacy; Hutton, Philip 
Augustus; Emerton, Medieval Europe; Duruy, History of France: 
Perry, St. Louis; Pastor, History of the Popes; Tosti, Storia di Boni- 
facio VHI ; Wiseman, Essays on various subjects, pp. 452, 453 and pp. 
4g4, 4Q§; Taswell-Langmead, Constitutional History; Tout, Edward 1; 
Gardiner, Student's History of England; Hutton, Simon de Montfort. 



CHAPTER XIV 



THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR 



238. Character and Causes, — The Hundred Years' War 
from 1338 to 1 45 1 was fought between England and France. 
Its after effects on this internal history of the two kingdoms 
and its widespread area give to it a considerable importance 
in European history. Not only was the very identity and ex- 
istence of England and of France at stake, but soldiers from 
distant parts parts of Europe took part in the war, enlisting 
themselves on one side or on the other. 

The main cause of the Hundred Years' War was the fact 
that there were English possessions on what was geograph- 
ically French soil. The English channel was clearly the 
natural frontier between the two countries, and yet the im- 
portant provinces of Gascony and Guienne were in the hands 
of the English. A struggle thus became inevitable and it 
only remained for some definite hostile act on either side to 
bring to a head the mutual jealousy and suspicion of the rival 
nations. 

It was natural that France, being constantly provoked by the 
sight of an alien occupation of her own soil should strike the 
first blow. Profiting by the insubordinate attitude of Scot- 
land towards Edward I of England, her over-lord, France 
found a pretext for an open quarrel in the long outstanding 
rivalry between the French and English seamen, a rivalry 
which culminated in an open sea fight. Philip the Fair laid 
the blame on the English, and as suzerain of Edward sum- 
moned him to appear before his court. Edward, being pre-oc- 
cupied with the Scots sought a brief delay by temporarily ced- 
ing into Philip's hands the province of Guienne. But this only 

183 



1 84 I'HE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 

made the intentions of the French King still more evident, 
for at the end of the forty days of cessation Philip refused to 
give up the province that had been thus temporarily ceded. 

France had chosen rightly her own time for starting the 
war, as for several years from that time the strength of Eng- 
land was diminished by the struggle for Scottish independence. 
So frequently did France strike at England through Scotland 
that Scotland became nicknamed the " apron " of France. By 
supplying Scotland with arms, money, and men, France was 
able to exercise a check on the policy of England and to lessen 
her capacity for war. 

239. England's Allies on the Continent. — While the main 
purpose of France during the war was to assert her terri- 
torial integrity, it was the natural interest of England to keep 
within the sphere of her influence the Duchy of Guienne, 
with which England had such an important trade in wine, and 
especially to secure the permanence of her wool trade with 
Flanders. England was mainly an agricultural country and 
her chief produce was w^ool ; Flanders was essentially a manu- 
facturing country and possessed the art of working up the raw 
wool into excellent cloth. Thus, as far as England was con- 
cerned, the war was mainly a commercial war; it was fought 
for motives of trade, and her most important ally, Flanders, 
was attached chiefly by considerations of commercial ad- 
vantages. 

240. Battles of Sluys and Crecy. — The war was fought out 
chiefly in France ; it was there that the decisive battles were 
w'aged -and that the most disastrous effects of the war were 
felt. The \'ictories during the first campaign were all on the 
side of the English. At the battle of Sluys (1340), Edward 
III, with his comparatively smaller fleet, successfully demon- 
strated the superior efficiency and generalship of the English 



BATTLE OF POITIERS I«5 

iiavv. and w hen he landed in France, the decisive engagements 
were again ah in his favor. It is true that Edward was 
compelled to withdraw from his intended march on Paris, 
owing to the too evident superiority of the enemy's numbers 
and also that he was compelled to retreat gradually before 
the French army, but when Edw^ard at the village of Crecy 
(1346) turned round and faced the enemy, his victory was 
complete and overwhelming. No doubt he was helped by 
certain natural advantages. His army was posted on a rising 
slope and he was fighting on ground of his own choice; also 
a sudden storm had wetted the strings of the Genoese archers 
on the French side; but the real cause of success was of 
deeper significance. The battle Avas a contest for superiority 
betw-een the French feudal cavalry and the English yeoman 
archers, and the result was the death-blow of what was the 
essential material support of feudalism; the mounted horse- 
man had been the very type of the material strength of feudal- 
ism but the battle of Crecy proved that he was no match for 
the humble archer. The use of artillery, observed for the 
first time at Crecy, though doing little to determine the im- 
mediate fortunes of the day, yet foreboded what was destined 
to shatter forever both the feudal horseman and the feudal 
castle. 

241. Poitiers. — Soon after this battle the town of Calais, 
an important sea-port town, was taken by the English and in 
the year 1347 operations on a large scale were again started 
in France. Again the English won an important battle, this 
time at Poitiers in a more southern part of France. The 
English army \vas lead by the Black Prince, the king's eldest 
son, already conspicuous for his valor at Crecy. On this occa- 
sion also the English army was in retreat, being pursued by 
a superior force, and again the English were able to fight 
in a strong position of their own choosing. The French army 



1 86 THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 

had to fight its way around through a narrow lane where its 
very numbers only tended to its greater confusion, and a 
sudden attack by the English cavalry on the flank quickly de- 
cided the battle. The French King himself was taken cap- 
tive, together with a great number of the French nobility 
(1356). 

242. Treaty of Bretigny. — The result was the treaty of 
Bretigny (1360), by which the English king ceded to France 
the northern provinces, but was confirmed in the more impor- 
tant possession of the southern Duchy of Aquitaine. By the 
same treaty the English king also renounced his claim to the 
throne of France, a claim which was scarcely made in serious- 
ness, but rather with a view to strengthen the alliance between 
himself and Flanders. 

But the English occupation of French territory, which was 
the original cause of the war, still continued and nine years 
afterward hostilities were again resumed, which finally drove 
the English from .the soil of France. 

243. Renewal of the War. — The grievous taxes imposed 
by the English government upon the southern provinces caused 
a revolt, which was made all the more serious by their evi- 
dent sympathy with France rather than with England. The 
lords of Aquitaine appealed to King Charles V of France, who 
eagerly took up their cause. The English army was now con- 
siderably handicapped both by the illness of the Black Prince, 
and by the severity of the winter climate, and in a short time 
the victory of a Spanish fleet over an English fleet completely 
cut off any communication between the English contingent in 
France and its base of supplies. Resistance became hopeless, 
and by the end of Edward Ill's reign all that England still 
retained in the south of France were the two towns of Bor- 
deaux and Bayonne. 



JOAN OF ARC 187 

244. Agincourt and the Treaty of Troyes. — In a few years' 
time, however, the madness of the French King Charles VI 
and the bitter strife between the two great poHtical parties of 
the Burgundians and Armagnacs, headed respectively by the 
Duke of Burgundy and by the Duke of Orleans, furnished a 
favorable opportunity to England's desire for revenge. The 
King of England, at that time was Henry V (1413-1422), a 
man of great energy and warlike ability. In 141 5 he sailed 
for the Norman coast, captured Harfleur and marched into the 
heart of France. On the field of Agincourt (1415) he en- 
countered the French host. As usual the English army was 
favored by its more favorable position and the French cav- 
alry plunging through the miry ground soon became thrown 
into confusion ; the English army, on the other hand, had suc- 
cessfully compensated for its inferiority of numbers by mass- 
ing itself in a narrow space between two woods, where it 
could be safe from a flank attack. The French were com- 
pletely overthrown, and in 14 17, after a brief rest in England, 
Henry V renewed the invasion of Normandy, took its capital 
Rouen and made with the French King the treaty of Troyes. 
By the terms of this treaty, Henry V was recognized as regent 
of France, and as its future sovereign, while the close alliance 
between the two countries was still further cemented by the 
marriage of Henry V with Catharine, the eldest of the French 
princesses. 

245. Joan of Arc. — This brilliant success was destined to 
be the last that was to wait on the English arms. In the year 
1422, only two years after the treaty of Troyes, Henry V 
died, and English France was governed by the Duke of Bed- 
ford acting as regent for King Henry VI, a minor. The 
military genius of the Duke of Bedford was nearly equal to 
that of Henry V, but all his efforts to retain France were 
baffled by the renewed enthusiasm that inspired the French by 



l88 THE HUNDRED YEARS' JVAR 

the appearance of Joan of Arc, surnamed the Maid of Orleans. 
She proclaimed herself as one sent by Heaven to redeem 
France from the hands of the invader. The sanctity of her 
life and the immediate fulfilment of her predictions gave force 
to her words. The French army was saved from its de- 
moralization and a wave of patriotism swept over the country. 
In 1429 she raised the siege of Orleans, and triumphantly led 
the French army through Troyes up to the gates of Rheims, 
where Charles VII was solemnly crowned as King of France. 
Her mission was thus accomplished, but she was not per- 
mitted to retire to her beloved retirement. She unfortunately 
fell soon after into the hands of the English, and on a charge 
of sorcery was burned in the market place of Rouen. 

246. The Lancastrian Experiment in Normandy. — The 
Duke of Bedford recognized as an accomplished fact the 
hopelessness of retaining the great bulk of the former English 
possessions. He wisely determined to concentrate in Nor- 
mandy the scattered fcMxes and energy of the English. Noth- 
ing, indeed, could be more interesting and plausible than what 
is called the Lancastrian Experiment in Normandy, which 
was an attempt to convert Normandy into a thoroughly Eng- 
lish province. Not only was the French element driven out of 
the sea-port towns, but the English system of parliamentary 
representation, of administration of justice and local by-laws 
were all introduced, while the new university at Caen, still in 
existence, promised to become a center of English culture. 
But the experiment failed. The whole s}"stem was too arti- 
ficial, and Normandy, which was at first English in its tastes 
and sympathies, began to change its temper and to wish for 
absorption into the neighboring French territory. 

247. English Driven out of France. — By the year 1435 
it became clear that all chances of any English occupation of 




The Capture of Orlenns 



I90 THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 

l^^rench territory were lost. The genius of the Duke of Bed- 
ford was powerless against the overwhelming force of circum- 
stances. Burgundy, which had also been such a faithful ally 
of England, now under Philip the Good formed an alliance 
with the King of France, the feeble efforts of Talbot Earl of 
Shrewsbury to retain Gascony were foiled by the superiority 
of the French army, and to crown all, the Duke of Bedford 
found himself without any support from the home govern- 
ment. The same great cause that had weakened France and 
invited the Hundred Years' War now showed itself also in 
England. As France had been torn asunder by the contend- 
ing factions of the Burgundians and Orleanists, so now in 
England there began to appear the beginnings of those two 
factions who were shortly to plunge England into all the 
horrors of the civil wars of the Roses, and effectually to pre- 
vent her from regaining the territory she had lost abroad. 

About the year 1453, the Hundred Years' War between 
England and France drew to a close, and the only fragment 
that was still left of the once powerful possessions of Henry H, 
was the little town of Calais. This remained English for 
about a hundred years more and at the present day still bears 
evidence of the lateness of the English occupation. 

248. A survey of the Hundred Years' War seems to reveal 
a contradiction between the facts of that war and the result. 
Nearly all the great battles were won by the English, and 
yet the fruits of the struggle were all in the hands of the 
French. In a long war of conquest, however, a succession of 
brilliant victories do not always spell success. Perhaps when 
they are won by the people whose territory is invaded, as in 
the Greek- Persian wars, they may do so, but to ensure success 
to the invader something more than isolated brilliant victories 
is required. All during the campaign the English had to fight 
far away from their base of supplies, from which they were 



ROYAL POWER STRENGTHENED 19I 

sometimes altogether cut off, and they hail to contend against 
the French spirit and sympathies of the land they were trying 
to occupy. The madness of the French king and the existence 
of two mutually hostile political parties in France at first fav- 
ored England, but these accidental circumstances soon passed 
away. Indeed, the incapacity of the weak-minded King Henry 
VI and the quarrel between the houses of York and Lancaster 
in the Wars of the Roses seemed exactly to revert the condi- 
tion of things in favor of France. 

249. Results. — The Hundred Years' War had the im- 
portant result of hastening the internal development of France 
and England. In France many of the old feudal houses be- 
came extinct at the disastrous battle of Crecy, Poitiers, and 
Agincourt, and on the other hand, there began to be formed a 
royal standing army, which with the permission of the States- 
General in 1439 w^as raised by the king and supported by a 
general tax called the " taille." This, of course, meant the 
lessening of the power of the feudal nobles on the one hand, 
and on the other it meant the strengthening of the royal power 
which finally became absolute. 

In England the Hundred Years' War also had the effect of 
weakening the power of the barons, a great many of whom 
with their retainers perished on the fields of France. But it 
would be scarcely true to sa}^ that the power of the king was 
correspondingly increased. Indeed, the Hundred Years' War 
with its consequent burden of taxation and its ultimate series 
of disasters contributed materially to the overthrow of the 
royal House of Lancaster, while the power of the people, ow- 
ing to economic effects of the war, received a fresh impetus 
in the direction of a democratic government. We must now 
turn to consider the rise of another European state that was 
soon to assert for itself an important and an abiding place in 
the pages of history. 



1 9-' THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 

250. Rise of the House of Hapsburg. — While the Hundred 
Years' War was rapidly shaping the future destinies of France 
and England, certain important movements in Germany were 
laying the foundation of the greatness of the two houses now 
reigning in Germany proper and Austria. It was during this 
time that the House of Hapsburg quitted its ancestral seat in 
Switzerland in order to acquire the Austrian dominions, and 
connected with this was the circumstance of the rising great- 
ness of the House of Hohenzollern. 

251. Method of Imperial Election. — When the Hohen- 
staufen dynasty in Germany came to an end there ensued an 
interregnum of twenty years, during which time no German 
king obtained general recognition. In 1257 there took place 
a double election that brought into prominence the changing 
character of the electoral body. Originally the electors were 
the nobles and ecclesiastics, but since the number of these grew 
unwieldy it was thought better to entrust the task of election 
to a small committee consisting of the three archbishops of 
Cologne, Maintz, and Trier, and of the four secular leaders 
of Saxony, Bavaria, Franconia, and Suabia. Later, how- 
ever, owing to the changes that had taken place in the national 
duchies of Saxony, Bavaria, Franconia and Siiabia, the Ba- 
varian vote was by 1257 exercised by the Count Palatine of 
the Rhine, the Franconian vote by the Margrave of Branden- 
burg, while the Suabian vote w^ent to the King of Bohemia, 
who represented the Slav nationality. Thus the seven elec- 
tors in 1257 were three archbishops already named, and the 
four lay rulers of Brandenburg, the Palatinate, Saxony, and 
Bohemia. 

Some of these electors chose as king Richard, Duke of Corn- 
wall, brother of Henry III of England ; the others chose Al- 
phonse of Castile. As might be expected, neither candidate 
had any real authority, though Richard, owing to his wealth 



RUDOLPH FIRST 1 93 

derived from the mines of Cornwall, and to the support of the 
Pope had the stronger position of the two. On the death of 
Richard, Pope Gregory X, one of the few strong popes of this 
period, secured a fresh election and in 1273 Rudolph, Count 
of Hapsburg, was elected. The election was opposed by King 
Ottokar of Bohemia, but Rudolph defeated him and confis- 
cated his possessions. He allowed Bohemia proper to return 
to Ottokar's son, but Austria and Styria he added to his own 
personal hereditary possessions. From that time to now, Aus- 
tria, with its capital Vienna, has always remained the seat and 
centre of the House of Hapsburg. 

252. Rudolph I was also the founder of the policy of his 
house, lliis policy consisted in abandoning all l^topian 
schemes of a world-wide empire and resting content with the 
consolidation of his own personal dominions in Germany. 

The imperial title, however, did not remain constantly with 
the Hapsburg House. On the death of Rudolph in 1292, the 
electors chose Adolph of Nassau, and although he was set 
aside six years after and succeeded by Albrecht I, the son of 
Rudolph, yet on Albrecht's death the succession again went 
outside the Hapsburg House. This time it was the houses of 
Luxemburg and Bavaria that alternately supplied candidates 
for the imperial title, and it was not until Albrecht H, in 1438, 
that the imperial title finally reverted to the House of Haps- 
burg. 

253. Imperial Succession and Policy. — Between 1308, the 
date of Albrecht's death and 1438 the date of the return of 
the Hapsburgs to imperial power, the following in succession 
were the most imporant emperors : — Henry VH of the house 
of Luxemburg, Lewis of Bavaria and Charles IV of Luxem- 
burg. The reign of Henry VII was signalized by the revival 
of the old dream of a universal imperial domination. He was 



194 THE HUNDRED YEARS' IJ'AR 

a man of talent and determination and there was a chivalric 
side to his character which prompted him to hsten to the stron.t;- 
appeals from Italy that he should intervene and restore order 
to that land so torn asunder by internal strife and petty 
tyranny. It was to him, indeed, that Dante addressed these 
words : " Come to see your Rome which weeps, widowed and 
alone and calls out day and night : ' My Caesar, wherefore 
does he not attend me! ' " Henry VII listened to the appeal, 
but his brief success in the north of Italy was cut short by his 
sudden death in 13 13. His successor, Lew-is the Bavarian, 
spent most of his time in the same policy of Italian interven- 
tion, and his presence in Italy only brought into still clearer 
light the reluctance of the Germans to interfere outside of 
Germany, and the silent disregard of the Italians for the indi- 
vidual who aimlessly moved about in their midst. 

254. The Golden Bull. — In 1347 the imperial crown re- 
verted again to the House of Luxemburg in the person of 
Charles IV. f^erhaps the event which most memorizes the 
reign of this king is his issuing the Golden Bull in 1356. This 
document definitely confirmed the powers of the seven electors 
and attempted to put into a constitutional form the respective 
rights and relations of the king and the princes. 



255. Policy of Charles IV. — Owing to the marriage of his 
father with the Bohemian princess Elizabeth, Charles IV was 
also the hereditary ruler of the kingdom of Bohemia, and soon 
showed towards it great partiality. He extended its frontiers 
so as to include Silesia and Moravia, and greatly enriched its 
capital Prague, w^here he founded the first university of Ger- 
many. In other respects, however, the policy of Charles IV 
was marked either by failure or by apparent weakness. His 
intervention in Italy was attended by even greater humiliations 
than in the case of his predecessors. It is said that some- 



RISE OF SWITZERLAND 195 

times one single situation can throw more light than many 
words of explanation — and surely the sight of an emperor 
locked up in the palace of Sienna and verging on starvation 
sufficiently illustrates the impotence of the emperor in Italy, 
and the contempt for him entertained by the Italians. Charles 
also failed to preserve to the empire the old kingdom of Bur- 
gundy and is particularly to be blamed for not coming to the 
help of the Knights of the Teutonic Order, who were the most 
faithful defenders of German Eastern frontier. 

256. Rise of the House of Hohenzollern. — Charles IV. 
died in 1378 and was succeeded by the emperors \\'enzel. 
Rupert of Palatinate, and Sigismund of Luxemburg. None 
of these reigns was remarkable in itself, but in the reign of 
Sigismund an accident prepared the way for the future great- 
ness of the House of Hohenzollern. Sigismund had acquired 
Brandenburg by right of inheritance, and being overwhelm- 
ingly in debt to Frederick of Hohenzollern he handed over to 
him the duchy of Brandenburg. Brandenburg thus became 
the political cradle of the House of Hohenzollern and under 
their firm and sagacious diplomacy it eventually developed 
into the kingdom of Prussia. 

257. The Swiss Confederation. — The death of Sigismund 
in 1438 meant the final restoration of the imperial title to 
the House of Hapsburg. The original home of the Haps- 
burgs was the castle of Hapsburg in the southeast of Suabia. 
near the line of railway which now runs from Olten to Zurich. 
The forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden were 
under the jurisdiction of the Hapsburgs. In 1291 the ab- 
sence of the Hapsburgs in their new Austrian possessions 
seems to have loosened their hold upon their Swiss possessions, 
for at that time the three cantons above mentioned threw off 
their allegiance to the Hapsburgs and assumed independent 



196 THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 

political rights. Nor were they content with merely throw- 
ing off the feudal yoke of their over-lords, for they even en- 
croached upon surrounding territory. The Hapsburgs in vain 
protested by force of arms. At the battle of Morgarten 
(1315), the Hapsburg Austrian army received a severe defeat 
at the hands of the rebels, who, being afterwards joined by 
other cantons, were thus able to form the nucleus of what 
eventually became the Swiss Confederation, the first of pres- 
ent day European republics. 

258. Difficulties of the Austrian Government. — The Haps- 
burgs themselves were not long, in recognizing the hopelessness 
of the task of keeping under subjection a people territorially 
so distant and in sympathy so alien to their rule. When Al- 
brecht II succeeded vSigismund in 1438, he made no attempt 
to reclaim their allegiance, but confined himself to the con- 
solidation of his new hereditary dominions. These were al- 
ready sufficiently extensive ; not only the Archduchy of Aus- 
tria proper, but also Bohemia and Hungary were under his 
sway. Such extended dominions, however, brought \vith 
them special inconveniences. It is always a hard and danger- 
ous task to rule over different populations settled on different 
soils. During the fifteenth century there began that contest 
between the Teutons in Austria and the Slavs in Hungary 
and Bohemia that even to this day is the most serious menace 
to the House of Austria. 

This element of civil discord was, as in the case of the 
Albigenses in France, complicated by religious dissent. John 
Huss, born in 1369, was a popular preacher in the Slav lan- 
guage. While still professing himself to be a faithful son of 
the Church he tried to propagate the doctrines of \\"ycliff. He 
was summoned before the IV Council of Constance (1414) 
and was condemned and executed as a heretic. His followers 
after his death organized themselves into a fierce religious-po- 



PEASANT INSURRECTION 197 

litical party and greatly added to the discord already existing 
among the discordant races. 

259. Insurrection of the Peasants, — During the reign of 
Edward III, there hegan to appear in England two very im- 
portant movements that were destined to have far-reaching 
consequences on the political and religious life of England. 

The first of these movements was the insurrection of the 
peasants. There were many causes that made the English 
peasant profoundly discontented. The Statute of Laborers in 
compelling the laborer to work at a given rate was a galling 
injustice, and the restriction put upon the movements of labor- 
ers also greatly interfered with the natural course of trade and 
inflicted great hardships. The old feudal dependence of the 
serf-laborers upon the landlord was also a grievance. Hith- 
erto, they had been obliged to perform certain fixed services 
as a rent for their small holdings, but now they began to assert 
their right to pay their rent in the form of money. Then 
there were other grievances, such as the heavy taxes and mar- 
ket tolls, the selfish monopoly of the guilds, the growing 
wealth of foreign merchants,* and capitalists who were settling 
in the kingdom. 

All these causes combined together to produce the famous 
peasant rising of 1381. The want of cohesion, however, 
among the rebels, the selfishness of their leaders, and the 
firmness of Richard II saved the situation, but the rising 
marked a step forward in the progress of the common people. 
Although the insurrection was suppressed, we find that shortly 
afterwards, most of the serfs were allowed to pay their rent 
in money, and the condition of the peasant in regard to other 
classes of society, w^as considerably improved in dignity and 
comfort. 

260. Spread of Lollardry.— Closely connected, but not 
identified with the peasants' revolt, was the spread of Lol- 



198 THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 

lardry. The Lollards were a religious sect that had flourished 
in Germany, and the term Lollard was afterwards applied to 
all those who in any way concealed erroneous religious views 
under the guise of piety. In England, there rose about the 
same time as the revolt of the peasants, a considerable section 
of men who held very advanced views regarding the Church 
and society, and ultimately taught doctrines that were utterly 
at variance with essential teachings of the Church. 

261. William Wycliff. — The founder and head of this new 
religious movement in England was William Wycliff, rector 
of the small parish of Lutterworth in Leicestershire. He first 
began by preaching the necessity of reform, especially in re- 
gard to the excessive wealth of the clergy. He also advanced 
an opinion that all authority is derived from grace and that 
therefore, no one enjoyed real authority, unless, he were in a 
state of grace. This theory which appears at first so start- 
ling, was reduced to a mere shadow by certain distinctions and f 
by the fact that his doctrine of dominion founded on grace, 
was only a theory and did not hold in practice since the Chris- 
tian must in any case always obey by reason of the obedience 
that he owes to God. Further than this, such a doctrine if 
put into practice would result in nothing less than the complete 
subversion of the entire existing political and social order of 
things. 

262. New Heresies of WyclifT. — It was not long however, 
before Wycliff altogether abandoned his position as a son of 
the Church and denied such essential doctrines as those of the 
Real Presence, indulgences, worship of the saints, and the au- 
thority of the pope. At the same time that Wycliff thus ap- 
peared as a revolutionist in the Church, his followers, by the 
unrestrained zeal of their discourse caused the Wycliffian 
movement to be identified with the peasants' rising. It was 



GROWTH OF ENGLISH LIBERTY 1 99 

his wandering" priests that stirred up the people by declama- 
tions about the equality of man and the unlawfulness of cer- 
tain money making trades. The result was that W'ycliffism 
incurred the suspicion and displeasure of both the spiritual 
and the temporal powers. 

A\'ycliff, however, continued the contest and with his new 
weapon of pamphlet writing, continued to assert his favorite 
doctrines. It is evident that his writings had rui effect for 
Lollardry still continued even after his death, lender Henry 
IV, was passed the statute " de heretico comburendo," which 
aimed at the destruction of the Lollards. Alany of them were 
thus either killed or silenced, but the tradition of the move- 
ment kept alive a certain political hostility to the papacy, an 
hostility which was fanned by the sight of the immense wealth 
of the Church and was an omen of the final separation of Eng- 
land from the Church during the reign of Henry VHI and 
Elizabeth. 

263. Growth of English Liberty. — During all these years 
the English Constitution had been slowly perfecting its sys- 
tem of representative government. The abuses that had 
weighed upon the people under the Xorman and Angevin 
kings had been substantially removed. The personal despot- 
ism of the king, unlawful and arbitrary imprisonment, excessive 
taxation, interference with the rights and privileges of the 
people, had been s\\e])t awa\-. Owing to the alliance bctw'een 
the people and the barons, who at first worked from unselfish 
motives, the incon\-eniences that resulted from an excessive 
central authority were on all sides considerably lessened. 

We have already seen that under Edward I Parliament had 
asserted successfully the doctrine that no taxes should be im- 
posed sa\-e by the common consent of all the people of the 
realm. When Edward II dared to govern in violation of the 
constitutions of the realm, he was deposed by act of Parlia- 



200 THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 

inent. Under the reign of Edward III the following princi- 
ples were definitely established : first, that all taxation with- 
out the consent of Parliament is illegal ; second, that both 
houses, namely. Lords and Commons, must concur in legisla- 
tion ; third, that the Commons may inquire into and amend 
the abuses of administration. Even in our times these prin- 
ciples form the very foundation of the democratic constitution 
of England and the Cnited States, and the same may be said 
of the rights that were secured to the House of Commons 
under Richard II. These rights were: first, that no taxes 
could be levied or laws enacted without its consent; second, 
the inspection and control of the entire government ; third, 
examining the public accounts and declaring to what purpose 
the public funds should be put ; fourth, the right of impeach- 
ing offenders, i. e., accusing them before the bar of the House 
of Lords. Besides these fundamental and all-important rights 
which still remain to the House of Commons, the two Houses 
managed to acquire other rights closely connected with safe 
and easy despatch of business, such rights, for example, as 
freedom from arrest (except for treason, felony, or breach of 
peace), freedom of speech and the right to decide disputed 
elections. 

264. Theory and Practice of the English Constitution. — 

There is no doubt but that in practice the apparatus of consti- 
tutional government was in these times thoroughly democratic. 
The power of the people was fully recognized, and had al- 
ready become an accepted axiom. In this regard nothing can 
be more instructive than to compare the legal theory in the 
twelfth century regarding the royal power, with the legal 
theory which prevailed in the fourteenth. Bracton, the early 
exponent of English law, maintained that the will of the 
prince was law, while Chief Fortescue, who was Chief Jus- 
tice in 1442, declared that the king derived his power from the 
people. 



WARS OF THE ROSES 201 

Yet, in spite of all this there were grave defects which al- 
most completely neutralized the benefits that might have been 
expected from a state of things so democratic in practice and 
in theory. Some of these defects, indeed, exist even in our 
own time. First of all the people were not really represented 
at all, and the voice of the all-powerful Parliament was not 
really the voice of the nation. The system of representation 
was unfair and inade(|uale. The south of England was al- 
lowed to send up far more representatives than the north and 
the work of electing was often engineered by small groups of 
powerful magnates. Worse than all, only persons worth forty 
shillings a year were allowed to elect members of Parliament 
This restriction had the effect of disfranchising the rising small 
farmers who now formed a great part of the English middle 
class. Indeed, the people of those times might utter the same 
complaint as in our own times that the reins of political power 
were really in the hands of small groups of men. 

Then again the judicial part of the system was subject to 
the same evil influences. Powerful barons would try to per- 
vert the course of justice by appearing in the court with bodies 
of armed retainers at their backs. 

However, about the middle of the fifteenth century the evil 
w-as brought to a crisis and was partly ended by the Wars of 
the Roses, during which the great barons engaged each other 
in deadly combat and thus so weakened their own position that 
they could no longer engross the enjoyment of political power. 

265. The Wars of the Roses were caused by the deadly 
rivalry existing between the Hc^use of York and the House of 
Lancaster. Henry VI, of the House of Lancaster, was then 
reigning, and the weakness of his character furnished a fitting 
opportunity to Richard Plantagenet. Duke of York. Richard 
laid claim to the throne by the title of his more ancient descent, 
but liis claim, however plausible, was scarcelv valid in the 



202 THE HUNDRED YEARS' JVAR 

face of the fact that the House of Lancaster was niHns^- by 
consent of the Enghsh Parhament, which even from the times 
of the Enghsh Witan could make and unmake kings. How- 
ever, so much discontent was caused by Henry's w-eak govern- 
ment and by the turbulence of the nobles that Richard thought 
he could successfully appeal to the people's craving for a strong 
and settled government. 

This sanguinary struggle began in 1454 and lasted 
about thirty-five years, though only two out of these years were 
spent in hard fighting. Battles were fought and won on both 
sides and were characterized by great slaughter and merciless 
brutality. The decisive battles were the battle of Wakefield 
(■'-1460), in which the Duke of York, w^as slain and his faction 
routed, the battle of St. Albans (1461), in which the king was 
utterly routed and after being deposed by Parliament, was 
succeeded by Edward IV, son of the slain Duke of York. 
Then came the battle of Towton (1461J, in which the Lan- 
castrians suffered an irretrievable defeat, and the position of 
Edward IV on the throne was finally secured. Even when 
the Earl of Warwick, who had been Edward's main sup- 
porter, turned against him and entered into an alliance with 
the Lancastrian leaders, Edward was still triumphant and at 
the battle of Tewkesbury (1471) again beat the Lancastrians, 
while Margaret, the Queen consort of Henry IV, was taken 
captive, and Henry VI himself perished in the tower. 

266. Results of the Wars of the Roses. — The Wavs of the 
Roses were fought almost exclusively between the great 
barons and their retainers. The great middle class had 
scarcely taken any part in them. The loss of life there- 
fore had fallen almost exclusively on the barons and their 
retainers. The balance of power now remained between the 
king on the one hand, and the common people on the other. 
But the people were not yet alive to their changed position 



ILLEGAL TAXES 203 

and so the iinuiediate effect <.)f tlie Wars of the Roses was to 
make the king absolutely supreme. In fact, it seemed as 
though the dial of history had received a setback to the 
despotism of the Norman and Angevin kings. All classes 
of the community were dependent upon the king alone. The 
churchmen looked to him for the protection of their lands, 
the trading classes for the security of their property. Nor 
had the king any need to make the Parliament a partner in 
the functions of governing, for previous grants as well as 
the confiscated estates of the Lancastrians had already filled 
the royal treasury. 

267. Edward IV. — Much, however, depended upon the 
character of himself, and Edward IV under a light and a 
gay exterior concealed profound political ability and deter- 
mined ambition. He soon acted up to the situation. He re- 
duced the functions of Parliament to registering lists of at- 
tainers against the Lancastrians. Then when his extrava- 
gance necessitated more money he not only asked for one- 
fifteenth of each person's movable goods no less than five 
times during the space of five years, but he also resumed the 
old feudal dues, and even fell back on benevolences, or forced 
gifts. In legal matters he was equally despotic. Lie intro- 
duced a severe treason act by which writings and even 
abstention from action might be used as evidence of con- 
structive treason, and above all the odious use of torture was 
again introduced. 

268. Royal Despotism Only Temporary. — And yet if we 

go below the surface, the evil was but temporary in its char- 
acter. It was easier for the people to fight against the 
tyranny of one man than against the tyranny and misrule of 
many nobles with powerful bodies of men at their back. The 
despotism of the Yorkist kings, and the Tudor kings who 



204 THE HUNDRED YEARS' JVAR 

succeeded them was not an unmitigated evil ; it introduced 
order where there had been chaos and gave to England a 
strong foreign poHcy, while the ground was also cleared for 
that great struggle between the king and the people which 
ended in procuring for England all the blessings of free 
constitutional government. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Importance of the Hundred Years' War — Remote and imme- 
diate causes of the Hundred Years' War — Motives of the two 
countries in going to war — Battles of Sluys and Crecy — Battle 
of Poitiers — Treaty of Bretigny — The war renewed in the 
South of France — English reverses — Arrival of Henry V, who 
wins the battle of Agincourt — English invasion of Normandy — 
Treaty of Troyes — Duke of Bedford as regent in France — 
French success under the Maid of Orleans — Account of the 
Lancastrian experiment in Normandy — English slowly driven 
out of France — End of the Hundred Years' War — Survey of 
the Hundred Years' War — Its results in France and England. 
Origin of the House of Hapsburg — Changes made in the Ger- 
man electors — ■ Rudolph founder of the greatness of the House 
of Hapsburg — Henry VII of Luxemburg — His intervention in 
Italy — The same policy continued by Lewis the Bavarian — The 
failure of this policy — Reign of Charles IV — His extending the 
boundaries of Bohemia — His failure in Italy and elsewhere — 
Attitude of the Forest Cantons towards the House of Hapsburg 

— Battle of Morgarten — The German and Slav element in the 
Austrian dominions — John Huss and the IV Council of Con- 
stance — Weakening of the royal power in England and rise of 
democratic government — The various rights and privileges suc- 
cessfully asserted by Parliament — Democratic advance even in 
legal theories — ■ Serious defects in the representative system — 
Defects in the judicial system — Causes of the Wars of the Roses 

— Battles of St. Albans, Towton and Tewkesbury — Important 
political results of the Wars of the Roses — Rise of royal des- 
potism under Edward IV — A strong basis of democratic power 
still remains. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Oliphant, Troissart's Chronicles; Ashley, Joan of Arc; Edivard HI 
and his ivars; Adams, Growth of the French Nation; Nineteenth Cen- 



GENERAL REEERENCE 205 

TURY, article by AJks. Maxwell — Scott, in Joan of Arc; Trevelyan, Eng- 
land in the A,KC of Wycliffc; Hassall, The Erench People; Whitman, 
Austria; Buchekn, IVilliam Tell; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire; Poole, 
Illustrations of the Elistory of Medieval Thought; Hugg and Stead, 
Switzerland; York-Powell and Tout, History of England; Gardner, 
Houses of Lancaster and York; Smith, Troublous Days of Richard II; 
Church, Henry V ; Stubbs, Constitutional History of England; Lord 
Brougham, England under the Llouse of Lancaster; Gardiner, Edition of 
the Paston Letters; Letters and Papers illustralive of English Wars in 
France during Henry \'I (Ed. by Stevens); Bebier, Lettres et Memoirs 
d'Etat des rois, Princes et Amhassadeitrs de Francais I et Henry II; 
Paradin, Histoire de notre temps; Ward, House of Austria; Chronicles 
of Enguerrand; Histoire de Charles VI, by Juvenal des Ursing (Ed. by 
Buchoii) ; Lc Recoucz'rement de Nonnandie (Ed. by J. Stevenson) ; 
Chroniquc du Rcligieux de Saint Denis ; Journal d'un Bourgeoise de Paris. 



CHAPTER XV 



THE RENAISSANCE 



269. Meaning of the Term Renaissance. — The Avord Re- 
naissance means literally a re-birth and is used in the historical 
sense to denote the great mental, social, and moral revoln- 
tion that began in the fifteenth centnry. dnring the bloodshed 
of the Hnndred Years* War. There is a contradiction be- 
tween the hteral meaning and the actnal nse of the word. 
By the renaissance, or re-birth, writers generally mean the 
revival of the study of the ancient classics. But the move- 
ment denoted by the term renaissance meant much more than 
this. It meant a complete revolution in the ideas of men. 
For a few hundred years the individuals composing medieval 
society had been thinking, living, and acting along certain 
fixed and definite lines. Families from one generation to 
another Jiad pursued the same line of trade; certain fixed 
courses of studies were prescribed in the universities and 
colleges; the arts of sculpture, painting, and music had been 
confined to certain rigid lines, and even in the world of 
philosophical and religious thought there were certain fixed 
traditions beyond which none x'entured to stir. Medie\-al life 
had been moving in ruts from which il was suddenly lifted 
with terrific jolts. It is true that many at the time of the 
Renaissance began to cultivate the study of the ancient clas- 
sics, but this was only one section of the great movement. 

The eyes of men seem to have been suddenly opened, and 
their sympathies brought into touch with a new world re- 
vealed to their gaze. A corresponding restlessness seems 
to have agitated their inmost being. Not only the classics 
but the most abstract problems of science now drew their 

206 



STUDY OF THE CLASSICS 207 

attention. Not only architecture and painting but even the 
lesser accomplishments came in for a share of attention. 
Music, dancing, the art of conversation — all these seemed to 
open out fresh possibilities of Ijeauty and enjoyment. In 
fact, the whole life of man underwent a kind of transforma- 
tion which touched even the smallest actions of daily life. 

Having described the Renaissance movement as a whole, 
we may now take up in detail its main branches, which are as 
follows : hrst, the revival of the classics ; second, the im- 
petus given to \ernacular literature; third, architecture and 
sculpture; fourth, painting and the lesser arts. 

270. Exclusive Study of the Letter of the Classics. — It 

would be a great mistake to suppose that the study of the 
classics -was altogether neglected even during the worst periods 
of the middle ages. The Latin authors, like Cicero and 
Seneca, were studied, and there is evidence to show that 
Virgil and Ovid were in frequent use. Moreover, copies of 
the classic writings were made at the cost of a great amount 
of time and labor. But the Latin authors were studied not so 
much for wdiat they said as for the manner in which they said 
it. The worldly shrewdness of Horace, the fervor of patriot- 
ism and the beauty of nature as portrayed in the lines of 
Virgil, and the restless questionings of Cicero and Seneca — 
all these were lost sight of and the attention was fixed mainly 
on the verbal text. Students sought for the art-form only 
and not for the art-content. To them, the vocabulary, the 
methods of sentence construction, or at most skilfulness of 
argument, \\ere supposed to be the only and best fruit of 
studying tlie ancient authors. 

With regard to the study of Greek it must be admitted 
that there was a general ignorance of even the written text. 
Onl\- here and there would the study be pursued by some 
isolated scholar. 



2o8 rilE RENAISSANCE 

271. Excessive Specialization. — The study uf the classics, 
therefore, during the middle ages failed to receive the interest 
and support that it deserved. And yet in the universities, 
there could be found a great deal of mental activity, for 
distinguished professors still lectured and were listened to by 
bands of eager students from most distant parts. The root 
of the evil was that there was too much specialization. Gen- 
eral culture was neglected, and t(jo early and too much atten- 
tion was paid to certain lucrative studies, as theology and 
law. Perhaps the same evil of specialization may be said to 
exist even in our time, when the classics are beginning to be 
ignored and the more lucrative subjects of science and en- 
gineering are receiving paramount attention. 

272. Study of the Classics for Culture. — The movement 
that took place during the end of the middle ages meant the 
abandonment of specialization for broad general culture, in- 
cluding, of course, the study of the classics. And so from 
thenceforth we find the Latin authors studied because they 
seemed to bring one into actual contact with the world in all 
its beauty and attractiveness. Now it was through the Latin 
authors that men were brought back to nature and the deej) 
problems of life. Rich ladies of the time, such as the duchess 
Elizabeth Este, would sing Virgil's lines to impassioned 
music, and men would discourse in urgent tones the pagan 
ideas regarding the immortality of the soul. No doubt this 
sympathy with the ideas and emotions of pagan authors was 
accompanied by special danger. But amongst the advocates 
of the new classic learning we must distinguish carefully two 
classes, b'irst, those who merely wanted to expand the study 
of the classics, not di^•erging, however, from the old lines of 
thought and of education. Second, there was the pagan school 
that wished to sub\'ert altogether the hitherto accepted order of 
things. The first was the Christian school of humanists; the 



GREEK LEARNING 20g 

second was the pagan school, and fortunately this was con- 
fined only to Italy. But even in Italy there was a considerable 
number who belonged to the Christian school. Dante, the 
greatest of Italian poets, and withal an orthodox son of the 
Church, and overflowing with faith in the supernatural, was 
one of those most intimately affected by the influence of Virgil, 
To Virgil he addresses these words : " Thou art my author 
and my master thou." And Dante during his awful journey 
through the Inferno surrenders himself completely to the 
guidance of this illustrious pagan. 

273. The Study of Greek, — The study of Latin therefore, 
may be said to have undergone a revival inasmuch as not 
only the letter of the text but the spirit began to occupy a 
large share of attention. But the revival of the study of 
Greek was still more complete, for here even the letter of the 
text had been practically forgotten and was now again restored 
in Italy and spread over all Europe. 

274. The Causes of Enthusiasm for Greek Learning. — 

Various causes contributed to the enthusiasm for Greek 
learning. No doubt, the capture of the Greek capital, Con- 
stantinople, by the Turks, sent out a great number of Greeks 
exiles who wandered all over Europe spreading with them the 
knowledge of Greek. But even before this date, there were 
professors of the Greek language who enjoyed great repute 
and popularity. Florence was then the great center of Greek 
culture. There, under the influence of the first magistrate, 
Lorenzo the Magnificent, learned Greeks like Demetrius 
Chalcondyles taught the letter and imparted the logical 
beauty of the Greek tongue to throngs of eager students, and 
it was at this sacred fire that were lighted the torches that 
spread throughout the rest of Europe an enthusiasm for 
Greek. 



2IO THE RENAISSANCE 

275. Study of Greek in England. — In England, however, 
the reception of the Greek cuhure, was exceedingly slow and 
reluctant. The universities especially seemed unwilling to 
open their doors to the movement. The fact was that while 
thev were conscious that the intellectual future was intimately 
connected with the enthusiastic cult of the Greek authors, they 
feared it was something that they could not easily assimilate. 

The first Englishman who studied Greek was William 
Selling, Prior of Christ Church, and it was he who after- 
wards inspired such propagandists as Linacre, Grocyn, and 
Latimer. It was at Oxford that the first formal lectures 
on Greek w^ere delivered by the able Grocyn and Linacre. 
Then Cambridge followed the example, mainly owing to the 
zeal of Bishop Fisher, the same bishop who under Henry 
VIII was martyred for his denial of the supremacy of the 
king over the Church. At Cambridge the study of Greek 
was perhaps slower but more secure than at Oxford, and it 
was in Cambridge that was founded the first professorship 
of Greek. Among the most noted professors was Erasmus 
from Rotterdam, who had been invited to England by More 
and Colet, and who speedily became one of the most zealous 
champions of the new study. 

The new movement, however, did not make its way without 
meeting bitter opposition. Even to this day the rival party 
names Greeks and Trojans of the public school boys recall 
the days of the early sixteenth century when the himianists 
had to fight their w'ay against the " Trojans." the nickname 
given to the sworn foes of Greek culture. There even took 
place a short reaction in the direction of the old learning. 
But the Church zealously upheld the new movement and 
Cardinal Wolsey, the king's chancellor, even made the study 
of Greek compulsory at Oxford University. Much of the 
opposition sprung from the deep-rooted English conservatism 
and its aversion for more outward brilliancy. But when the 



NATIONAL LIFE 



211 



universities saw that the new Greek cnhure was producing 
not only leaves but good solid fruit, they no longer resisted 
but placed themselves at the head of the movement. Their 
acceptance of the humanistic revival was thus deliberate and 
being more restrained produced more solid and durable re- 
sults than in those countries that were guided rather by the 
passionate instinct of the movement. 

276. Patriotism and the 
Universities. — The ardent 
love of nature and intense 
curiosity regarding' the deep- 
est problems of life that 
brought about the revival of 
the classics also gave rise to 
vernacular literatures. Na- 
tional character like individ- 
ual character tends t(^ ex- 
press itself in its own way. 
Before the sixteenth cen- 
tury, national life had been 
dormant. Nations had been 
so busied with the actual 
problems of political exist- 
ence that they had little time 
to <hink oi anything else. 
But the Renaissance meant 
the rise of the national consciousness, the rise of an intense 
and ardent patriotism of a reflexive kind. From this point 
of view, therefore, it resembled the Augustan Age, the writers 
of which seem so brimful of the majesty and pathos of their 
native Italian life. This was especially the case in England 
where Spenser and Shakespeare were basking in the rays of 
Elizabethan greatness and it was not absent even in Italy 
though there it was not so dominant. But besides this vein 




Erasmus, the most famous Greek and Latin 
scholar of his time. Born at Rotterdam 
about 1467; died 1526. 



212 THE RENAISSANCE 

of patriotism, which gave a peculiar character to each native 
production, there were always peculiarities of national char- 
acter which prompted each nation to adopt its own views of 
the problems of life. 

In Italy the movement in the direction of a vernacular litera- 
ture concentrated itself round the names of three great writ- 
ers, Petrach, Dante and Boccaccio. 

277. Petrarch was born at Arezzo in Italy, in the year 1304, 
His father belonged to the same political party as Dante, and 
both were banished at the same time. Petrarch even from 
his earliest years showed signs that the fever of the renais- 
sance was in his ver}^ blood. When still in his teens he loved 
to read the sonorous sentences of Cicero, though unable to 
grasp their meaning, yet his ear w^as charmed by their stately 
flowing rhythm. The early promise was not nipped in the 
bud, and when Petrarch came to maturity he appeared as the 
foremost pioneer of Latin culture and rendered invaluable 
service by his zeal in discovering the most correct edition of 
the ancient authors. 

But Petrarch will be remembered not only for the work 
which he prized most but for that which he held in least 
esteem. His Italian poems and especially his sonnets, were 
steps in hitherto unknown paths of literature. His use of the 
Italian vernacular revealed to his countrymen the peculiar 
beauties of their own tongue as a vehicle of literary ex- 
pression, and his sonnets, the first of this species of literary 
composition, had a far-reaching influence on the vernacular 
writers of other countries. 

278. Dante, the greatest of Italian poets, born in 1265, 
perceived to the full the boundless possibilities of the tongue 
of the people. His " Divina Commedia " not only lifts him 
up to the rank of the world's greatest poets, but reveals at 



DANTE AND BOCCACCIO 



213 



the same time the inexhaustible beauties of expression, 
flexibihty, strength and majesty of the Itahan vernacular. 
The very variety and breadth of knowledge shown in this 
master poem, its acquaintance with philosophy, theology, and 
even science, sufficiently demonstrates that the popular tongue, 
despised by Petrarch, and admired by Dante, was adapted to 
the expression of any thought in any branch of knowledge. 
To Dante belongs the honor 
of being the first literary 
architect to discern the na- 
ture of a hitherto rejected 
material and of creating out 
of it an unrivaled master- 
piece — a masterpiece that 
has successfully borne trans- 
lation into nearly every 
European tongue and that 
touches the chords that vi- 
brate deepest in the heart of 
man. 

279. Boccaccio. — \\'hat 
Dante was in the field of 
verse Boccaccio was in the 
field of prose ; his Decam- 
eron or " Hundred Tales " 

being the earliest prose work written in pure Italian. Boccac- 
cio was also enamored with the new classic learning, but 
unfortunately his morals sometimes sank below the precepts 
of even the Latin philosophers whom he so much admired. 
His want of restraint appears even in his writings and the 
Decameron is sometimes marred by the grossest details. In 
his later years, however, he repented, and the sober serious- 
ness of his later writings testify to the change in his heart. 




Dante. 



214 THE RENAISSANCE 

The " Divina Commedia " became the favorite subject of his 
discourses, and his commentary on the Inferno, though less 
brilHant than the Decameron, has been much esteemed. 

280. Influence of the Italian Renaissance on English Lit- 
erature. — The names of Petrarch and Boccaccio ought to be 
interesting even to EngHsh readers, since the wave of Italian 
Renaissance affected English life and literature. The pioneers 
of the Renaissance of the English A'ernacular. such men as 
Wyatt, Surrey, Spenser, and Shakespeare, either learned di- 
rectly from Italian models, or showed that they had been 
affected by contact with Italian scenery, life, and manners. 
The Italian Renaissance gave to English writers new forms of 
expression, and greater precision and polish. It did some- 
thing still more and created for the English poet an altogether 
fresh atmosphere. But the English writers were not servilely 
dependent on the Italian. They had the sense to shake off the 
defects of their originals. Indeed, the petty conceits, the com- 
plex imagery and artificiality of some of Petrarch's produc- 
tions were distasteful to the English mind. The earlier Eng- 
lish writers like Wyatt may sometimes have been too much 
under sway of foreign influences, but men like Spenser and 
Shakespeare entirely transmuted the original by the magic 
glow of their own peculiar genius. The writings of the 
palmy days of the English Renaissance throb with the very 
intensity of national feeling and patriotism. The greatness 
of England's queen, the victories of the English naval heroes, 
and the carrying of the English flag beyond the seas, all com- 
bined to arouse national consciousness and pride. Even the 
very style is purged of foreign dross. In Spenser we find 
not only the peculiar charm and beauty of antique English, but 
the very dantiest and choicest words and modes of expression. 
While Shakespeare is the first writer since the Old English 
Period to assert with overwhelming power the grandeur and 



RENAISSANCE ART 21 5 

rugged strength of the u\d Teutonic spirit, he was more 
English than even Dante was Itahan. His whole work is an 
epic of the English nation, and it is in him that we find the 
English character in all its length and breadth. 

281. The Renaissance and the Art of Painting. — It was 

in the art of painting that the Renaissance found its fullest 
and richest expression. The very essence and root of the 
whole movement of the Renaissance was a passionate desire 
to be brought into touch with the world of the senses, a world, 
however, that needed to be idealized and suffused with the 
glow of imagination. For this purpose no art seemed to be 
so adequate as that of painting. In the picture the real 
world seems recreated with intensified color and form. 

In Italy, there rose various schools of painting each with 
special characteristics and merits of its own. This was only 
the natural result of the political condition and past history 
of Italy. Political life there had no one common center but 
several centers. Each city had a special political and social 
life of its own. It was only natural therefore that this indi- 
viduality of each city should also call forth individuality of 
artistic expression. The different schools of Italian painting 
are well known and their specimens are found in every 
museum. A partial acquaintance therefore with their history, 
characteristics and foremost exponents might reasonably be 
demanded of any student of history. 

282. The Florentine School. — This was the chief school 
of Italian painting. It is distinguished for its high moral 
feeling, its adequate treatment of historical subjects, and the 
utter truthfulness that pervades every detail. In the material 
composition of its pictures we find a remarkable power of ex- 
pressing movement, and for imparting to the figures a con- 
spicious grandeur and dignity of expression. Perhaps the 



2l6 THll RENAISSANCE 

most well known of the painters of this school was Fra 
Angelico, whose pictures occupy such prominent place in the 
National Gallery of London, the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, 
and above all, in St. Mark's Convent in Florence. Experts 
may perhaps complain of a certain want of science and a 
visible weakness in portraying rapid movement or niceties of 
anatomical form, but these defects are more than compensated 
by his wonderful variet}' of human expression, and for his 
angels which are of the ver}- purest types. 

The Siennese School is noted for the beauty of its female 
heads, also for its clear and transparent coloring. There 
may not perhaps be much originality in the g'rouping of the 
figures, but on the other hand, there is expressed great depth 
of feeling. The " Assumption of the Blessed Virgin " by 
Matteo, in the National Gallery of London, admirably illus- 
trates these different traits of the Siennese School. 

283. The Umbrian School. — The style of this school, 
though occasionally somewhat marred by mere prettiness and 
even affectation, yet surpasses in real excellence the style of 
the cjther schools. The Perugian branch contains perhaps the 
best and most representative men of the L'mbrian School of 
painters. This school took its rise in the very cradle of re- 
ligious enthusiasm, in the spot made venerable by the labors 
of St. Francis and his friars. And as the Franciscan move- 
ment gave -rise to an outburst of Christian song and Divine 
melodies so also it called into existence a new^ and exalted 
style of painting. Purity of soul, fervent longings, and en- 
tire abandonment to enthusiastic tenderness are its predomi- 
nant traits. 

284. Pietro Delia Francesca (1415), in his "Baptism of 
Our Lord " was one of the earliest to body forth the highest 
qualities of the new school. In him we find material skill of 



VENETIAN ART 217 

the highest order. His mastery of the laws of aerial per- 
spective, and his acquaintance with the properties of light and 
shade are manifest even to the untrained. The same picture 
is also suggestive of the most intense realism and subjective 
emotions. The sense of beauty, however, in some people 
might be offended by his peculiar type of heads, wdiich with 
their broad faces, wide nostrils, and meeting eyebrows rather 
resemble the eastern type of features. 

285. Perugino was born in 1446 and from many points of 
view is even a still abler exponent of the principles of the Um- 
brian school. He was past master in all the technical quali- 
ties of painting. His perspective could scarcely be improved. 
A peculiar grace and softness pervades every line of his work. 
Nothing could ever surpass the beauty of his heads, that ex- 
press either radiant youth or any form of ardent expression; 
even in depicting mere material things, he shows himself 
thoroughly proficient in his employment of color. His limita- 
tions must be sought for in other Avays, perhaps his inability 
to deal with dramatic subjects, and a certain monotony of ex- 
pression. An altar piece in St. Dominic's Church, at Fiesole, 
and a picture of a Madonna with two saints, at Cremona, are 
best illustrative of his method of treatment. 

286. The Venetian School. — Venice, in art, as in manv 
other things, occupied a unique pc^sition in Italy. Venice had 
been always more or less under Byzantine influence, and she 
had always opposed any opposite tendencies. Pictures of the 
Venetian school therefore are easily discernible by peculiar 
melting softness, and Iw the long and easy lines of their 
drapery. Venice was also extremely aristocratic in character 
and her paintings display a corresponding love for splendor 
and elegance. 

Among the foremost painters of the Venetian school are 



2l8 



THE RENAISSANCE 



the two brothers, BarthoU)meo and Antonio Vivarini. 
Bartholomeo especially had a powerful and original mind, 
such as would be likely in any art to strike out on new lines. 

The Venetian school displays some of the characteristics 
of the later style of Renaissance painting. Its colors are 
unique for their fluidity and transparency and it also set the 
fashion for a new material in the art, by the use of oil colors. 
Another feature of distinction in the Venetian schc^ol is its 
more abundant use of accessories, especially the landscape 





'fl 1191 '^^^^ 


f-^jW 


!» -!"*-*•«> - ^as^san^w 


-r^t^^ :i^s^ ■--s^Sf«E35P*^'a|:r'?-'-T?i'«-"'*'*«« 







The Last Supper. 

which now assumes a dominant position. It is also fond of 
introducing such accessories as angels singing or playing on 
musical instruments or bearing festoons of flowers. 

287. The Lombard School. — Leonardo de Vinci, born in 
1452, is the giant exponent of this school. Though touched 
by the classic movement he was no servile imitator of the an- 
tique and he well knew how to imitate nature without sacrific- 
ing his own originality or independence of imagination. It 
is said that genius consists in taking pains, and Leonardo 
seems a fit example of the definition. It was not the sudden 
stroke of inspiration that made him great so much as his un- 



RAPHAEL AND TITIAN 2ig 

tiring labor at retouching and correcting. His masterpiece 
is the " Last Supper," still on the wall of the refectory in the 
Convent of St. Maria della Grazie, in Milan. This picture is 
sadly battered by time and damp, but the mind at once fills 
up all the gaps, and discerns the full intention of the author. 
The whole composition is marvelous for its simplicity and 
truthfulness of details. 

The above are the principal schools of Italian painting, but 
outside these, there are certain great artists who, being of tran- 
scendent genius, have developed quite an individuality of their 
own. 

288. Raphael, born in 1483, was a disciple of Perugino, 
and shows in his paintings all the tender sentimentality of the 
Umbrian school. Together with this, he also exhibits mar- 
velous individuality of character and a careful study of de- 
tail. His Madonnas are numerous and show that he was in- 
fluenced by more than one school of Italian art. His 
" Coronation of the Virgin " in the Vatican breathes the spirit 
of the Umbrian school. But two other pictures of the Ma- 
donna, one at Munich, the other at Berlin, show clear traces of 
Florentine influence. It must be admitted that there is rather 
a loss of spirituality, but on the other hand he gains in ac- 
cession of technical strength. 

His most famous works are the frescoes in the stanze, or 
living rooms of the Vatican, at the time of Leo X. Amongst 
them are the famous allegories of the " Disputa " and " School 
of Athens." They show his marvelous gift of reducing ab- 
stract thoughts to vivid, concrete imag'es, and while retaining 
the beauties of the old style somewhat foreshadow the im- 
provements of the new. 

289. Titian ( 1477) though reared in the Venetian school 
soon developed traits of his own. We still see in his pictures 



J JO mil Ri:\.iiss.i.\\i: 

the gorgeous cokuing and stalely tonus iit" the \ euetiau 
school hut there are other excellences as well. There is a 
great deal o\ onlinary human enjoyiuent to he derived (vom 
his pictures. There iua\ he less o\ the exaltetl and snhlinie. 
hut there is more that is in sympathy with dur e\ cry da\' lite, 
lie lo\ed to i>aini agreeahle landscapes, the heauty of women, 
the tlignity of ntan. and the artlessness of childhood. Two 
of his ver\- celehratcd pictures are kept in the Louvre (lallery. 
and one o\ them. '" Peter Martyr." shows an extraordinary 
pi.>w er oi representing sudden and \ ii.'>lent actum. 

290. The Basilica Type of Architecture. — Intil the time 
of the Renaissance the two styles o\ architecture that pre- 
vailed in hauope were the Romanesque an^l the tu'tthic. The 
RiMuanesque style hail hegun in itafy ahout the se\enth cen- 
tury. It was essentially an altered and adapted form oi the 
old Roman Ikisilica style. The main features i>f the Basilica 
st\"le arc alrcad\- sutticiently familiar in such chinxhes as St. 
Paul uithout the walls, and of St. Agnes in Rome. The 
orilinary featm-f of the Ikisilica is its shape — that of an oh- 
long rectangle. Running up the middle is a hroad central 
na\e separated fnnn the aisles h\- rows of columns. This 
during pagan times terminated in a raised tribune at the end 
iif the hnikling where the Praetor, or Roman judge, used to 
sit. Naturally, this part o\ the building was altered to suit 
Christian worship. Instead of the juilge. the Christian altar 
was the center of attention and this was jilaced in the tribune 
which stood iHit of the main portion of the building and was 
co\ered with a semicircular \ault. 

291. Romanesque Style. — It was from this Basilica style 
that the Romanesque style directly sprang. But both the 
materials and even tlie shape of the Basilica style became con 
siderablv altered. The vaulted roofs were constructed of 




Titan's IVtcr Mriityr. 



222 



THE RENAISSANCE 



solid masonry, while stone or brick piers were used for the 
columns. By degrees, even the sanctuary end of the building 
became so altered in length as to make the whole resemble the 
shape of the Latin cross. Other new features were the use 
of buttresses, or architectural supports, to the wall, and mas- 
sive round arches. There still remained some elements of the 
old Roman style but these became so modified and added to 




The church and leaning tower at Pisa. The former was built in t^ie iith century. 
The tower, which is of white marble, 178^ feet high, was begun in 11 74 and 
finished in 1350. From its sLimmit Galileo first determined experimentally the 
laws of falling bodies. 

that the net result is entirely new and original. A fine ex- 
ample of the Romanesque is the church at Pisa in Italy with 
its leaning bell-tower. 

292. Influence of Renaissance on Architecture. — The Ren- 
aissance moN-ement affected architecture as it affected other 
art by returning directly or indirectly to the models of classic 
antiquity. Unfortunately, this seems to have been the only 



BRUXFJJJiSCni .IND BRAM.INTR 223 

art that in consequence suti'ered any detriment. Many of the 
early innovators indulged in servile imitation of Roman out- 
ward forms and ornaments without realizing the inward 
thought and principle from which they first rose. However, 
the new style did contain elements of beauty, and various 
artists strove not unsuccessfully to combine the merits of 
the old style with the new needs of modern ci\ili- 
zation. Naturally, Florence with its love of the beautiful 
in all its forms and its capacity for individuahsm lead the 
way. 

The main characteristic of the new style was the different 
use to which its columns were put. In the Greek and Roman 
style, the column was merely for purposes of decoration ; the 
walls were of such intrinsic solidity that the^' disdained any 
outward support. But in the Renaissance style, the column 
became a necessary support to the building. 

293. Brunelleschi. — The first pioneer of the Renaissance 
style was Brunelleschi, born at Florence in 1379. He spent 
a long time in Rome where he studied the ancient styles, and 
on his return to Florence he constructed for himself an en- 
tirely new design. The greatest monument of his is the 
cupola over the Cathedral in Florence. In the order of time 
this is the first of all great cupolas and in the order of 
merit, it is surpassed only by that of St. Peter's. 

294. Bramante. — Another and still greater exponent of 
the new style is Bramante, \\ho was in architecture what 
Leonardo de Vinci and Raphael were in the world of paint- 
ing. Like Brunelleschi he spent a considerable time in Rome 
in the exclusive study of the monuments of antiquity. The 
most important sphere of his labors being the numerous frag- 
ments in Hadrian's villa, fragments of which now for the 
most part are scattered throughout the different world mu- 



_'_>4 'f'l^i'' l^l'->^-\lSSASCll 

seunis. It is unfortunate that only fragments remain of the 
work of his genius. The present Cathedral of St. Peter's 
was begun by him. but subsequent changes introduced by 
Michael Angelo and his successors completely altered the 
original design. If r)ramantc had (Uily been permitted to 
finish what he had begun. St. Peter's instead of seeming 
smaller than it actually is. would have appeared even greater. 
Another adxantage would ha\e been that the aisles would 
have stretched without interruption frcun i>ne end of the 
l)uilding to the other. 

295. Renaissance and Domestic Architecture. — The Re- 
naissance style also introduced important changes e\-en into 
domestic architecture. The houses of this period had t(^ serve a 
twofold purpose, for while being* intended to serxe as places of 
habitation they might occasionally ha\e to be tiu-ned into 
temporary fortresses. This explains the massi\eness of the 
walls an<l the narrow lower windows of the house of this 
period. .Also, (luite peculiar features were the courtyard in 
the center of the building stu-rounded b\- a columnar .arcade. 
and the external staircases. 

Tlie wa\c of this new mo\cment affected architecture all 
over Europe In Prance there rose the Chateaux (»f Blois 
and Chaumont. while the Motel des hualides in Paris and 
certain pc^rtions of the Pou\re atford gotnl specimens of the 
style. In (aManany. too. castles and palaces were built in the 
same st)le ; — the castle <"<{ 1 leidelbei'g with its picturesque 
ivy-colored walls being still one of the most imposing ruins 
of Germany. 

Even in England the Cathedral of St. Paul in London 
shows the inihicnce of the Renaissance style. The exterior 
front with its two stories, is classical in fcMan and the modern 
reredos follows the Italian Renaissance style with its pe- 
culiar blend of classicism and emotionalism. 



I 



li 



77/71 PIS AMI AND DONATniJ.O , 225 

296. Renaissance Influence on Sculpture. — There seems 
to be some difference of opinion as to how far the influence of 
classic antiquity is responsible for the remarkable merit of 
the sculpture of the Renaissance. It certainly does not seem 
very apparent in any of the finer qualities of execution. Per- 
haps it would l)e truer to say that the Renaissance sculptors 
were influenced only indirectly by the classic element. They 
certainly created an entirely new style — a style which was at 
once hig'hly intellectual and intensely emotional. 



297. The Pisani. — The first artists to appear of this type 
were the Pisani. Indeed, Nicholas Pisani was the fcjunder of 
the new school. He was born in 1205 and soon showed signs 
of great talent. At the age of fifteen he was employed by 
Frederick 1 1 in some very important work, and haioro. long 
specimens of his genius w^ere multiplying in such towns as 
Pisa, Siena, and C)rvieto. His great gift seems to have been 
the handling of delicate subjects, and the representation of 
beautiful figures. lUit the "Last judgment" in the Cathe- 
dral at Siena showed that he also not unsuccessfully dealt even 
with subjects recjuiring grandeur of conception and forcible de- 
tails. - 

298. Donatello. — An artist tliat appealed perhaps still 
more to the po])ular imagination was Donatello, born in i3<^f). 
Like many other sculptors of the time he also practiced the 
professions of painting and architecture; but he specialized in 
sculpture. He seems to have been a man gifted with keen 
intelligence and energy of imagination and it is these two 
<|ualities that tend to give to his work such intense indi- 
viduality. His creations like those of Shakespeare are real. 
There is little doubt that what endeared him most both to the 
medieval and modern mind was his .statue of St. George, the 
type of knight sans pcur et sans rcprochc. In this statue are 



226 



77//: RnN.-iJSS.IX'Cli 



vividly portrayed the inimorlality of youth and strength of 
purity. The quiet but firm attitude, the expression of alert- 
ness, and the ardent glance — all call to mind the associations 
that cluster round the memory of St. George. 

229. Lucca dela Rob- 
bia, — But of all the sculp- 
tors of this period there is 
none whose productions are 
so universal as those of Luc- 
ca della Robbia. The very 
name recalls to one's mind 
the new material that was 
invented by him and called 
after his name. This mate- 
rial consisted of ordinary 
terra cotta covered over 
with a peculiar kind of var- 
nish which imparted both 
hardness a n d durability. 
But even from the point of 
view of form and artistic 
beauty Lucca was pre-emi- 
nent as is shown by his two 
works in the g-allery at Flor- 
ence and by " The Corona- 
tion of Our Lady " at Sien- 
na. The simplicity of his 
composition and strong emo- 
tionalism cannot but impress even the ordinary beholder. 

300. Michael Angelo. — Last in the list of sculptors, but 
perhaps first in merit comes Michael Angelo. For grandeur 
and sublimity none are his equals. In his works there is a 
startling titanic force that holds the imagination spell-bound. 




Statue of Moses by Michael Angelo 



TOPICAL SUMMARY 227 

Silent force and power was what he learned to express. His 
statues of Moses, of Lorenzo de Medici, and of David suffi- 
ciently illustrate some of his remarkable powers. He had, it is 
true, some defects, defects that more than the merits seem to 
have drawn the attention of his imitators. Such for example as 
the affected attitude of some of his figures, and also here and 
there a deficiency of taste. But these are more than coin- 
pensated by his originality of invention and his complete 
mastery of the principles of his art. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Definition of the Renaissance — The extent of its influence — 
Method of the study of the classics during the middle ages — 
Excessive specialization in the studies — Change in the meth- 
ods of the study of the classics — The new classes of humanists 

— Italy the center of Greek culture — Greek introduced into 
England — Opposition in England to the study of the Greek — 
Causes of \^ernacular literature — Patriotisni blended with the 
rise of vernacular literature — Petrarch — Dante — Boccaccio — 
The English Renaissance writers borrowing from the Italian writ- 
ers — Influence of the Renaissance on the art of painting — 
Causes of the different schools of painting in Italy — Florentine 
school — Siennese School — Umbrian School — Venetian School 

— Lombard School — Raphael — Titian — The Basilican and 
Romanesque schools of architecture — Influence of the Renais- 
sance on architecture — Characteristics of the new style — 
Brunelleschi, Bramante — Influence of Renaissance even on do- 
mestic architecture — Examples of the new style — Influence of 
Renaissance on Sculpture — The two Pisani — Donatello — 
Lucca della Robbia ■ — Alichael Angelo. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Symonds, Short History of the Renaissance in Italy; Burckh.ardt, Civ- 
Cambridge, Modern History; Armstrong, Renaissance; Lorenzo de 
Midici and Florence in the Fifteenth Century; Burckh.krdt, Renaissance 
C.A.MBRIDGE, Modem History; Armstrong, Renaissance; Lorenzo de 
Medici and Florence in the Fifteenth Century; Burckh.a.rdt, Renaissance 
in Italy; Sheran, Handbook of Literary Criticism; Robinson and Rolfe. 
Petrarch; Arnold, Manual of English Literature; Putnam, Books and 
their Makers; Pater, Renaissance; Woltmann and Woerman. Hislory 



228 THE RENAISSANCE 

of Painting; Vasaki, Lives of Seventy of the Most Eminent Painters, 
Sculptors and Architects; Lubke, History of Art; Grimm, Life of 
Michael Angelo ; Loyard, Italian Schools of Painting in Italy; Symonds, 
Michael Angelo; Freeman, Italian Sculpture of the Renaissance; Paul 
Van Dyke, Renaissance Portraits; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica; Henri De- 
LABORDE, Etudes sitr les Beaux Arts en France ct en Italic (Paris) ; 
Dejol, De rinflnence du Concile dc Trent sur la litterature et les Beaux 
Arts chez les Peuples Catholiqucs. 



CHAPTER XVI 

REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

France 

301. Political Union. — We ]iave seen that the Hundred 
Vears' War had a remarkable regenerating effect on France. 
The old local barriers and prejudices were submerged under 
the necessity of fighting a common foe. The feudal spirit be- 
gan to die out with the slaughter of the barons and there now 
appeared instead the virtue of patriotism. The mission of 
Joan of Arc had indeed been triumphantly accomplished. 

But France, though liberated, had still to be consolidated 
and organized, and this task was reserved for another maiden 
whose name ought not to be forgotten. When Charles VH 
after the peace of Arras relapsed into indolence and vice, it 
was Agnes Sorel that aroused him from his bed of vice in 
order to live over again for the good of France. He dis- 
missed his base favorites and assembled round him good and 
sagacious counsellors — men like Etienne Chevalier, of dis- 
tinguished administrative capacity, or like Jacques Coeur, 
whose large fortune enabled Charles to make his final success- 
ful stand against the English. 

302. Triumph of the Monarchy.— At the same time, the tri- 
umph of h^rance meant also the triumph of the monarchy. 
The whole strength of the nation was at the king's disposal. 
By the end of Charles VH's reign we find all the great means 
of government entirely in his hands. The large standing 
army was his, and it was his agents that collected the tax for 
the support of the army. The laws that were made on so 

229 



230 REl'IEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

great a scale and unifurmity now began to emanate entirely 
from royal authority. 

303. Louis XI. — Charles VII died in 1461 and was suc- 
ceeded by his eldest son Louis XI. The name of Louis 
XI has been made familiar both by novelist and dram- 
atist.' He was a man of strange and violent contrasts. 
He was brave, yet abjectly superstitious; a man of far-reach- 
ing foresight, yet sometimes blind to what was under his very 
feet ; able to mould the destinies of France and of Europe, yet 
exhibiting the most extraordinary meanness both of mind 
and of character. 

And yet this man with his supple and sagacious cunning 
managed to lay the foundations of royal despotism. He had 
spent his youth in the Dauphiny and had there studied to 
some purpose the devious ways of Italian diplomacy. The re- 
sult was shown in his set purpose to obtain his ends by 
artifice rather than by force. 

304. Conflict With the Nobles. — The greatest difficulty 
he had to meet rose from the powerful and independent 
nobles whom he had grievously offended. In the fourth year 
of his reign they revolted against him. The ringleaders 
were the Dukes of Burgundy and Brittany, the Counts Du- 
mont and Foix. The Duke of Burgundy from his vast pos- 
sessions and great influence \\as regarded as the commander- 
in-chief. The number of insurgents was superior to that of 
the royal forces, but Louis had the advantage of some pieces 
of artillery still in those days a new invention. An inde- 
cisive battle was fought at Monte I'Lery. Louis then en- 
tered Paris, the capital, and partly by flattery, partly by bribes, 
won over the Parisians to his side. It was not long before 
Louis, 1)}' the same artful diplomacy, succeeded in foiling his 
adversaries. He negotiated separately with each one of them, 



BURGUNDY 23 I 

and eventually the towns on the river Somme were his only 
loss. 

305. Power of the Duchy of Burgundy. — But the failure 
of the coalition of the nobles only brought into prominence 
Louis' most deadly enemy. This was Charles Duke of Bur- 
gundy. By the end of the fifteenth century the Duchy of 
Burgundy had arisen to an eminence that might well excite 
the ambitions of so ardent a temperament as that of Charles 
the Bold. The Duchy of Burgundy had been given to 
Philip the IV, son of John II. To this, Philip was able 
to add by marriage Flanders and Artois. Nor was he con- 
tent with the good fortune of circumstances, but he also ac- 
quired the important and flourishing provinces of Brabant, 
Holland, and Zealand. 

306. Policy of Charles the Bold. — When Philip died and 
Charles the Bold succeeded to his father's vast dominions he 
soon found that the policy of Burgundian expansion meant 
open opposition to the policy of the French monarchy — a 
policy of intense centralization. It was for this reason that 
Charles headed the league of the Public Weal against Louis 
and even when the league fell to pieces he still continued the 
opposition. But the energy of Charles was no match for the 
quiet diplomacy of Louis. The two pivots upon which the 
success of Charles' policy rested were an alliance with the 
English and the marriage of his daughter with Charles of 
Guienne, Louis' brother. But the English were bought off 
by Louis and the intended marriage was frustrated by the 
death of Charles of Guienne and the consequent reversion of 
the Duchy of Guienne to the French crown. 

The French policy of Charles of Burgundy thus fell to the 
ground. But Charles sought for some compensation by a 
strong German policy. Some of Charles' possessions lay in 



232 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

Germany and he now sought to build out of them a mighty 
empire. But here again he was foiled. His interview with 
the emperor Frederick III, by whom he had hoped to be 
crowned king, came to a ridiculous termination. But by a 
peculiar irony of fate it was the Swiss, whom Charles so 
much despised, that dealt the death blow to all his schemes. 

307. Defeat and Death of Charles. — While Charles was 
besieging the town of Neuss on the Elbe, the Swiss invaded 
Burgundy. The insult filled him with a thirst for revenge. 
Hastily taking the field against them, he was badly defeated at 
the two battles of Granson and Morat. Still undaunted he tried 
to recover the town of Nancy, capital of Lorraine, and in 
doing so received a fatal wound. 

The removal of Charles (1477) relieved Louis of the great 
obstacle to his schemes of expansion and centralization. Be- 
fore his death he succeeded in annexing to the French crown 
the Duchy of Burgundy on the East, and the province of 
Roussilon in the southwest, which gave France a strong 
frontier on the side of the Pyrenees. His foreign policy also 
scored a success in his alliance with the Swiss, now a power- 
ful military nation 

308. Social Progress. — The reign of Louis, in spite of his 
own personal defects, was also advantageous to the internal 
prosperity of the kingdom. He improved the means of com- 
munication by constructing canals and roads, he endowed 
universities and in many places established printing presses. 
Promotion was made possible to the lower classes of society 
and important offices were not the monopoly of noble blood, 
but were made dependent upon talent and ability. 

309. Charles VIII. — Louis died in 1483 and was succeeded 
by Charles VIH, a boy little more than thirteen years old. 



GERMAN DISUNION 233 

The guardianship of the king's person, together with the 
task of government, devolved upon his sister Anna of Beau- 
jeu, a talented woman who ably guided the monarchy through 
many dangers, until the king became of age. 



Gcnuany 

310. German Disunion. — During the later middle ages, 
(iermanv as a state had no existence. The term " The Ger- 
manics "" used by the French would have been far more ap- 
propriate. It was split up into an indefinite number of petty 
duchies and principalities, each governed by its own separate 
ruler. Sometimes even a single castle and a village nestling 
at its foot would constitute a separate state, asserting for itself 
all the prerogatives of sovereignty. 

At first sight there would seem to be certain elements 
which if taken advantage of might have brought about the 
unity of these petty states into a united nation. " There w^as, 
first of all, the emperor, wdio had all the majesty and prestige 
that could possibly be derived from long ages of custom and 
veneration. But unfortunately the energy of the emperor had 
been generally wasted on fruitless schemes in Italy, or in ex- 
panding the personal hereditary possessions of the House of 
Hapsburg. Moreover, there appeared no emperor endowed 
with any dominating personality like, for example, Bismarck, 
who by sheer force of will could bring together the scattered 
units of the empire. Another possible element of unity was 
the German diet, in which were assembled the seven electors, 
the princes of the empire, lay and ecclesiastic, and the repre- 
sentatives from the towns. But here also the diet, or parlia- 
ment was more a name than a reality. Its methods of pro- 
cedure were tedious and cumbersome. Most of the time was 
spent in discussing titles of precedence and empty formalities, 
while the real business w^as neglected. 



234 REJ'IEIV OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

311. Frederick III. — Such was the condition of the empire 
when F'rederick III succeeded to the crown. He was a man 
whose personal appearance harmonized with his inward char- 
acter. He had stoHd, heavy features, with a protruding 
underHp, and he was slow and heavy in all his actions. 
Energy and force of initiative seem to have been wanting in 
him, and he was adverse to undertakings involving extraor- 
dinary effort. His minister w^as Caspar Schlick, whose 
merits w^ere above his fame. Yet even he scarcely did more 
than conceal the incompetence of his master. 

Some effort, however, was made to promote the social and 
material prosperity of the empire, and even to render more 
easy its much needed unity. The greater and lesser estates 
were brought together into circles, while the members of the 
ecclesiastical orders were united with those of the knights and 
of the cities into provincial diets. At the same time there 
was established among the cities something that resembled a 
co-operative system. 

But these efforts were apparently unavailing. The groups 
were formed but there was in them no interior organic life. 
The experiment somewhat resembled that of certain chemists 
who tried to form a living body by merely bringing together 
certain inanimate elements. 

312. Results of German Disunion. — It was not long before 
the evil results of German division became apparent. Italy 
had already gone from its sphere of influence, the Swiss 
Cantons had already revolted from their Hapsburg rulers, 
while the Teutonic Knights were rapidly losing their territory 
in northeast Germany to Poland, and, more than all. impor- 
tant possessions in the west had been ceded, either voluntarily 
or by force, to France and Burgundy. 

313. Efforts at Reform,— In the face of these dangers 
everyone was disposed to blame the emperor and a cry arose 



MAXIMILIAN 235 

for a reform. The emperor turned a deaf ear, either because 
he would not or could not adopt any practical expedient, and 
so the task of reform devolved upon the estates. Only one 
important step was the result. This was the Suabian League 
in 1488, formed of princes, knights and citizens, who consti- 
tuted a board of arbitration to decide disputes. 

Perhaps the most tangible success of Frederick's reign was 
the success with which he looked after the interests of his 
own family. He used his privilege as emperor to give to the 
house of Hapsburg the dignity of the archdukedom, while the 
marriage of his son Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy added 
considerably to the territorial possessions of his house. 

314. Maximilian. — Frederick III died in 1493 ^"^ was 
succeeded by Maximilian. 

The personality of Maximilian is interesting. Physically, 
he was endowed with great strength which was gracefully set 
off by the modesty of his bearing. He was a man of wide 
tastes and many accomplishments. He loved fine scenery and 
literature, and did his best to promote all branches of knowl- 
edge. It is said that he even pawned a valuable jewel in 
order to aid a journey of scientific discovery, and so untiring 
and widespread were his efforts that he might even be said to 
have founded throughout Germany a society of history and 
archaeology. Much also might be said of his own mental 
proficiency. At the present day in the Venice Library can 
still be seen some of his works on such subjects as history, 
genealogy, heraldry, battle-arms, and architecture. Together 
with all this he w^as a thorough linguist, conversing fluently 
in no fewer than seven tongues. 

315. The Administration of Justice. — Under the guidance 
of his minister Eberhard, he tried to bring about greater union 
in Germany by dividing Germany into ten circles. This was 



236 REJ'IEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

clearly in imitation of the Suabian league, and unfortunately 
was attended by the same negative results. 

Whatever internal reform was effected in Germany during 
his reign must be attributed mainly to the action of the Es- 
tates under their leader Berthold of Mainz. A general tax 
called '* The Common Penny " was imposed, the amount of 
the tax depending upon the proportion of population in each 
place. The Supreme Court of Justice which hitherto had fol- 
lowed the emperor from place to place, thus delaying the ad- 
ministration of justice, now met ah\ays in one definite lo- 
cality. Even the very members of this Court were to be ap- 
pointed by the diet, no longer by the emperor. The only 
influence still retained by his imperial majesty was his ap- 
pointment of the President of the Court. 

Even these reforms, however, did not produce the desired 
effect. If the emperor had been willing to co-operate heartily 
in this diminution of his powers, there would still have re- 
mained the root cause of the entire evil, namely, the disunion 
of Germany. The Council of Regency which was then formed 
and entrusted with the chief executive power likewise pro- 
duced little practical result. The chief difficulty was not the 
misgovernment or tyranny of Maximilian so much as the 
paralyzed condition of the different German states. 

316. Foreign Policy of Maximilian. — The importance of 
]\Iaximilian's reign is to be found chiefly in his foreign 
policy. By his own previous marriage to Mary of Burgundy 
he had already secured Franche-Comte and the Nether- 
lands. Another marriage was soon destined to procure for 
his House still greater advantage. In 1496 his son Philip 
married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, 
a union which prepared the way for the succession of Maxi- 
milian's grandson, Charles V, to the most powerful throne 
in Europe. 



ITALIAN HISTORY 237 

317. Personal Traits. — Maximilian died in 15 19. He was 

one of the most interesting of the members of the Hapsburg 
family. He was full of activity, always devising new 
schemes. There was also a peculiar vein of medieval de- 
^•()ti()n in his character, for which among S(j many other things 
he managed to find room. For example, in writing to his 
daughter Mary, he hopes that when he has passed away he 
will become a canonized saint and that she will have the 
consolation of worshipping before his shrine. His most im- 
portant schemes sometimes fell through in a way which quite 
brought out the want of business-like grit in his disposition. 
He was even visiting the town of Inspruck in the Austrian 
Tyrol for the purpose of carrying out some important state 
business. Suddenly he was compelled to take his departure 
from sheer inability to defray his hotel expenses. 

Yet the character of Maximilian is attractive even in its 
quaintness, and he W'ill always remain as the most important 
landmark dividing off the medieval from the modern history 
of the House of Hapsburg. 

Italy 

318. Peculiar Characteristics of Italian History. — The his- 
tory of Italy during this period bears rather a striking re- 
semblance to the history of Ancient Greece. In Greece, there 
was no one individual state but a collection of small city 
states ; so in Italy there was no common rule or government 
extending over the whole land but merely a collection of city 
states. And these, like human beings, had an intense indi- 
viduality of their own. Each city state had its own past 
history and peculiar environment, its peculiar sympathies and 
repulsions, and each followed its own particular calling or pro- 
fession. ]\Iilan, for example, was a banking city, Padua and 
Bologna were mere university centers, while Venice devoted 



238 REVIEW OP THE STATES OF EUROPE 

whatever energy was left over from politics to matters of 
trade and commerce. 

Each city had also its own peculiar form of government, 
and even the same magistrates w-ent by different names in the 
several cities. Even foreign politics showed a marked contrast 
in the different cities. The northern cities for example were 
more or less ruled by a German policy, Florence and the center 
of Italy were alternately sw^ayed by a French and an anti- 
French policy, while the South was under the constant pres- 
sure of divising new means of defence from the Turks. 

319. Leading Cities. — Out of the multitude of Italian 
cities there w-ere five that in importance tow'Cr far above the 
rest. These were Milan, Venice, Florence, Rome, and 
Naples. So great was their political influence, and so exten- 
sive was the territory that fell under their jurisdiction that 
they practically monopolized the general trend of Italian poli- 
tics. Peace was preserved between them by a sort of balance 
of power. The states of Naples, Florence and Milan form- 
ing a coalition among themselves ; Rome and Venice forming 
a dual alliance. Such was the harmony resulting from this 
balance of power that the expression '' Two stringed Lyre of 
Italy " became proverbial. 

So absolutely individual were these cities and so important 
were they that an Italian history of this period w^ould be quite 
inadequate if it did not deal with each one of them in suc- 
cession. 

320. Milan, the capital of the great LombarcHan plain was 
the most northern state of Italy. From the beginning of the 
fourteenth century Milan was ruled by the family of the Vis- 
conti. At first their government depended, at least in form, 
upon the sanction of the people, but gradually the veil was 
lifted and the government appeared what it was — a despot- 



RULERS OF MILAN 239 

ism pure and simple. The framing of laws, the declaration 
of war or peace, the manipulation of the revenue — all these 
and other acts of sovereignty pertained exclusively to the 
Visconti. 

321. Gian Galiazzo Visconti was the ablest man of his 
family, and in 1395 received from the emperor Wenceslas the 

title of Duke of Milan and Count of Pavia. Even as a boy, 
he had been sedate and thoughtful, and now that he had ar- 
rived at man's estate, he showed a remarkable capacity for 
ruling. He organized powerful armies, established an elabo- 
rate hierarchy of paid officials and inaugurated a well-bal- 
anced system of keeping accounts. 

He had also had a curious scheme for drying up the lagoons 
of Venice in order that he might thus cripple his most dan- 
gerous rival in the North. 

322. Francesco Sforza. — Gian Galiazzo was succeeded by 
his son Philip Varca who, however, died without issue and 
thus prepared the way for Francesco Sforza, who founded a 
new dynasty. Francesco Sforza was a military adventurer of 
no mere common type. He soon established himself firmly 
in the government of Milan and managed to secure the sup- 
port of Louis XI of France and of Cosmo de Medici of 
Florence. After the death of Francesco Sforza, the govern- 
ment of the city and duchy of Milan for a short time came into 
the hands of Francesco Simonetta, previous secretary to 
Francesco Sforza. During this interregnum the Sforzas 
were exiled. But in 1479. Ludovico Sforza, whose cunning 
was ecjual to his ambition, managed to secure the support of 
Florence and of the Pope, and thus regain for himself and 
family, the government of Milan. 

323. Venice. — We have already seen that Venice, owing 
to her geographical position, takes a peculiar place in Italian 



240 



REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 



history. Her separation from the mainland tended to exclude 
her from taking" any part in Italian politics except in so far 
as it was necessary to save her subject possessions on the 
mainland, from being seized by the rapacity of Milan. At 
the same time, her powerful fleet and the numerous possessions 
that were still left to her after the fourth Crusade, dictated to 
her an imperial and commercial policy. 

324. Her Form of Government was at first a republic. 




A bird's-eye view of Venice. The city was founded on some small islands in the 
Adriatic by refugees during the invasion of Attila (p. 18), and gradually devel- 
oped into a great maritime power. 

under the presidency of the doge, who was elected for life. 
But it quickly assumed an oligarchic character. The people 
who spent their time in commerce were naturally unwill- 
ing to entrust the distracting afifairs of state to professed 
politicians. In 1142 the election of the doge was transferred 
from the people to the Grand Council. This Council, which 
was at first a representative one, speedily became the monopoly 
of a few noble families who took their places in it by heredi- 
tary right. 

During the fifteenth century, the government became still 



VENICE AND FLORENCE 241 

more oligarchic. The famous Council of Ten now began to 
hold the reins of the government. At first it was a court of 
supreme judicature, and then by degrees it acquired control 
of the entire domestic and foreign policy of Venice. 

325. Commercial Greatness of Venice. — It was under the 
two doges Tommaso Alocenigo and Francesco Foscari that 
Venice became most flourishing and powerful. 

During the time of Tommaso Mocenigo she was the center 
of the world's commerce. The trade routes from the East to 
the West converged in Venice and thence passed up the rivers 
Rhine and the Danube to the northern countries of Europe. 
Her factories were found all over the Levant, in Constanti- 
nople and in Egypt. Indeed, Venice practically monopolized 
the great part of the carrying trade of the world. 

326. Political Position of Venice. — When Francesco Fos- 
cari succeeded jMocenigo in 1425, \"enice began to enter the 
vortex of Italian politics and at first with conspicuous suc- 
cess. At the expense of Alilan. her rival, she accjuired the 
provinces of Brescia, Bergamo, and Cremona. This success 
of Venice, however, was accompanied by disadvantages. It 
drew upon her the jealousy and hostility of certain other 
powers of Italy. Moreover, it diverted her attention from 
the Turks who were her real enemies and \\ere menacing her 
colonial possessions and commerce upon which her prosperity 
so much depended. 

And yet Venice still remained a great power, and at the 
beginning of the sixteenth century was an important factor in 
general European politics. 

327. Florence, like Venice, was a republic, but of a very 
different kind. While the republic of Venice slowly devel- 
oped into an oligarchy, the republic of Florence after a series 



242 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

of many changes and revolutions, submitted to a despotic 
form of government. Even then the people of Florence 
seemed to regard their state as something to be continually 
experimented upon. 

328. The Albizzi. — It generally happens that when a great 
deal of executive power is allowed to remain in the hands of 
the people, they are apt to be swayed either by political fac- 
tions or party leaders. This was the case at Florence. The 
family of the Albizzi managed to get into their hands the 
exclusive control of the entire machinery of government. It 
is true that the general assembly of the people were still sum- 
moned in the public square, but they were generally swayed by 
the strongest factions of wire pullers. 

Under the leadership of Albizzi, Florence was signally for- 
tunate. Not only were its two great enemies, Gian Galliazzo 
Visconti of Milan and Ladislaus, King of Naples, carried off 
by the plague, but Arezzo, Livorno, and even Pisa fell into 
its hands. 

329. Family of the Medici. — In 1434, Cosimo de Medici, 
a princely merchant, overthrew the administration of the Al- 
bizzi and seized the reins of power. He seems to have real- 
ized that the continuance of his power rested upon the good 
will of the lower orders, and his rule was distinguished for its 
prudence and moderation. He was a great patron of the 
liberal arts. Not only did he establish at Florence a learned 
academy for the explanation of the Platonian philosophy, but 
he formed a most valuable collection of Latin, Greek, and 
Oriental manuscripts that afterwards became the nucleus of 
the Laurentian Library. 

Cosimo de Medici died in 1464 and was succeeded by his 
son Pietro, who after a short reign of only five years, died in 
1469. He was succeeded by his son Lorenzo, surnamed the 
Magnificent. 



LORENZO DE MEDICI 243 

330. Lorenzo the Magnificent is in every way the most 
brilliant representative of the Medici family. Both in poli- 
tics and in the world of letters he found opportunities for dis- 
playing his signal ability. 

His first endeavor was to continue the old triple alliance 
between Florence, Milan, and Naples, as a counterpoise to 
the power of Venice and Rome. But in this he nearly suf- 
fered a disappointment. A quarrel broke out between Lor- 
enzo and Pope Sixtus IV over the appointment of an arch- 
bishop of Pisa. This quarrel seemed to have furnished a 
favorite opportunity to the Florentine family of the Pazzi, 
who had always been bitter foes of the Medici. A conspiracy 
was formed to murder Lorenzo and his brother JuHano. The 
conspiracy was crushed and the archbishop of Florence, who 
was suspected of being an accomplice, was executed. There- 
upon, Pope Sixtus IV formed an alliance with Naples for the 
overthrow of Lorenzo. For a time, Lorenzo was in imminent 
danger. But, fortunately, a coolness sprung up between the 
Pope and Ferdinand of Naples, and the alliance between 
Naples, Florence, and Milan was restored. 

331. Patronage of Letters. — Lorenzo was now more pow- 
erful than ever and his court was the most splendid in Europe. 
He could now employ his peaceful leisure in making Florence 
the home of culture and art. The Laurentian Library, so 
called after him, was endowed with most valuable manuscripts 
brought from the East by John Lascares. The art of print- 
ing was quickly recognized by him and used for the accurate 
reproduction of many of the classic authors. And when after 
the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, a great number 
of Greek exiles arrived in Florence, he founded an academy 
for the express purpose of spreading a knowledge of the Greek 
language. " This academy," Roscoe says, " was another 
Trojan horse from which so many illustrious champions have 



244 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

sprung, spreading the knowledge of the Greek tongue 
throughout ah the countries of Europe." 

332. Savonarola. — The reign of Lorenzo was also famous 
for a great moral revival, which was brought about by the 
burning eloquence of Savonarola. This man, who has been 
the subject of many opposite views, was a Dominican monk 
of St. Mark's Convent, Florence. He preached so earnestly 
against the vices and frivolities of Florence that vast numbers 
reformed their lives, and became enthusiastic in the cause of 
religion. 

But Savonarola was not a mere religious revivalist. He 
was a politician as well, and became the leader of the demo- 
cratic party against the aristocratic party headed by the 
Medici. In 1499, Piero de Medici was expelled by the demo- 
cratic party who formed a government of their own under a 
general legislative assembly. Savonarola, however, was 
fiercely opposed by the Franciscans. At length, it was ar- 
ranged that the sanctity of Savonarola and his claims should 
be proved by the fiery ordeal. A fire was built in the market 
place, and Savonarola and one of his rivals, a Franciscan 
monk, were to walk through the blazing faggots. When they 
arrived at the place of trial, Savonarola proposed and insisted 
that the Franciscan should walk through the fire bearing in his 
hands the consecrated host. This demand both astonished 
and incensed the populace, who concluded, not unnaturally, that 
Savonarola was seeking to evade the ordeal. 

From that time, his influence waned. His excessive zeal 
also complicated his position at Rome. Not content with 
preaching in general against the popular abuses, he also in- 
veighed against the corruptions of the clergy and of the papal 
court, at that time presided over by Alexander VI. 

333. Death of Savonarola. — The enemies of Savonarola, 
both in Florence and in Rome, became more active than ever 



THE PAPAL STATES 245 

and a commission was appointed to try him. He was found 
guilty of heresy and of disturbance of the pubHc peace, and 
was accordingly condemned to death at the stake, a sentence 
which was carried out in 1498. 

Even to this day, the memory of Savonarola is strong at 
Florence, and crowds of curious gazers visit with veneration, 
the little cell that he occupied at the con\ent of St. Marks, 
and his character is still the sorry subject of acrimonious dis- 
putes. There are some who call Savonarola the fore-runner 
of Luther. But this epithet is hardly fair. In all the essen- 
tials of Catholic doctrine, Savonarola was orthodox, and his 
denunciation of abuses in high places is only one accidental 
point of resemblance between him and Luther. 

\\> might, perhaps, sum up the character of this man by 
saying that though his private life was estimable, and his zeal 
productive of great good, yet his interference in politics and 
his unrestrained denunciation of abuses brought about his 
ruin. His death was the real penalty not of heresy, but of 
rashness and of the spirit of meddling interference. 

Lorenzo died in 1492, leaving three sons, Pietro, Gio- 
vanni and Juliano. Pietro succeeded his father and Giovanni 
afterwards became famous as Pope Leo X. 

The Papal States 

The Papal States of Rome had begun to occupy a consider- 
able extent of territory. It comprised the Marches, Ro- 
magna, and Lmbria. besides the province of Rome, and had 
come to be recognized as a kingdom. During the absence of 
the popes in France, the actual authority of the pope in the 
Papal States had greatly diminished. A great number of 
cities in the Roman territory were allowed to be placed under 
the government of papal legates, who by degrees practically 
assumed a sovereign independent authority. 



246 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

334. The Conciliar Movement. — Another very important 
cause of the temporary dechne of the power of the popes was 
the great ConciHar Movement of the sixteenth century. Dur- 
ing the middle ages, the pope had held the reins of supreme 
power, but a serious dispute over the succession to the papacy 
attracted the minds of men to another source of authority — 
namely, the Councils of the Church. 

The Conciliar Movement first looms into importance after 
the death of Pope Gregory XI, which took place shortly after 
his return to Rome from his exile at Avignon, in 1378. A 
double election then took place. For, while the Roman popu- 
lace selected and demanded Pope Urban VI, who like them- 
selves, was an Italian, the Cardinals elected another pope, 
Clement VII, who would be willing to resume his pleasant 
and gay abode at Avignon. 

335. Council of Pisa. — Under these circumstances, there 
seemed only one way out of the difficulty, and that was, to 
summon a general Council. The University of Paris, the 
center of Catholic theological learning, also advocated the 
same proposal. The result was the Council of Pisa, held in 
1409. At this council, both the popes were deposed and a 
new pope was elected, who dying one year afterwards, was 
succeeded by John XXII. 

336. Martin V. — There were now three rival popes, a cir- 
cumstance which made the summoning of another Council 
once more inevitable. In 1414, was assembled the Council of 
Constance, which in numbers, in the interest it excited, and 
in the questions with which it had to deal, marks the cul- 
minating point of the Conciliar movement. At this Council, 
all the three popes were dethroned, and Martin V was elected 
as the new pope. 

The election of the new pope and the practical termination 
of the schism was only one of the important tasks assumed by 



CON CI LIAR MOVEMENT 247 

the council. The next step was the reformation of the many- 
abuses in the -Church. For this purpose, various concordats 
were made between the Church and the various nations, while 
the pope himself executed some very important decrees on 
reform, especially on such important matters as simony and 
clerical deportment. 

The good work effected by the council of Constance, un- 
fortunately carried with it the seeds of great danger to the 
unity of the Church. The important part taken by the Coun- 
cil in ending the schism led many persons to believe that the 
authority of a general Council was superior to that of the 
pope himself. The pope, however, condemned this opinion 
and declared that it was unlawful for anyone to appeal from 
the judgments of the Apostolic See, or to reject its decisions 
in matters of faith. 

337. Council of Basel.— How great was the danger, could 
be clearly seen a few years later when the Council of Basel 
even deposed Pope Eugene IV, who refused to acknowledge 
its authority and thereupon elected an anti-pope. This pro- 
ceeding had the effect of causing a reaction. The more mod- 
erate party now rallied to the side of the pope, and from 
this time, the Conciliar Movement began to decline. Perhaps 
its formidal)le recrudescence appears in France under Louis 
XIV, when, as we shall see, the Gallican Church claimed that 
a council was higher in authority than the pope. 

338. Provincial Councils. — Besides the general councils 
already described, another element of the Conciliar move- 
ment was the influence of the provincial councils. Examples 
of these are the councils of London, and of Prague, which 
condemned the doctrines of \\'ycliff. In fact, the idea of 
personal authority seems for a time to have been generally 
weakened, until the climax was passed in the Council of Basel, 



248 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

By the time of Nicholas V, the spiritual authority of the 
pope re-asserted itself, and peace was restored to' Christendom. 
In Rome itself, however, the pope had great difficulty in as- 
serting his temporal authority. 

339. The Great Schism. — When Pope Gregory XI did 
return to Rome, after the seventy years' exile in Avignon, 
there broke out the great schism which did even more harm 
than the Babylonish captivity. Three rival popes disputed 
among themselves for the possession of the tiara. There had 
indeed been rival popes before, but there had been little doubt 
as to who was the real pope. It was not so in the present 
case. Even eminent jurists were puzzled to decide between 
the claimants since the question depended so much upon posi- 
tive fact — whether or not the election of Pope Urban VI, 
had been a forced one and therefore invalid. 

340. Nicholas V. — The schism was finally healed by 
Nicholas V, who was elected Pope in 1447 after Eugenius 
IV. He prevailed upon the anti-pope to resign in his favor. 
Peace was thereby restored to Christendom. But the Pope 
still had difficulty in reasserting his temporal authority in 
Rome. An attempt was made to revive the independence of 
Rome against the Pope. But the firmness of Nicholas suc- 
ceeded in crushing the movement and Stephen Porcaro, the 
ringleader, was taken and executed. 

The reign of Nicholas V meant not only the restoration of 
papal authority in Rome but also the progress of learning 
and of the arts. His collection of books and manuscripts as 
well as the translations that he had made of Greek and Latin 
authors, culminated in his crowning achievement — the 
foundation of the Vatican Library — now one of the largest 
libraries in the world. Also the material appearance of Rome 
was improved by the erection of many sumptuous buildings. 



SUCCESSION OF POPES 



249 



Nicholas V died in 1455 and was succeeded by Calixtus 
III the chief poHtical event of whose reign was the victory 
achieved by the Christians over the Turks at Belgrade. He 
died in 1458 and was succeeded by Pius II. 

341. Pope Pius II. has been called, and not without reason, 
the most humane and lovable of the popes of the Renaissance. 
The elegance and refinement of his mind and his gifts of 




St. Peter's at Rome, the largest church in the world, covering about 4 acres. The 
Palace of the Vatican adjoining it on the north covers 13^ acres. The grandeur 
of these two structures is chiefly due to the work of Pope Nicholas V, and the 
genius of Michael Angelo and Raphael. 

poetry and eloquence endear him to the student, but to the 
Christian he is still more interesting on account of the sanc- 
tity and earnestness of his life. His character had even a 
touch of the heroic, and the spectacle of the aged pontiff en- 
deavoring to lead in person the reluctant forces of Christen- 
dom against the Turk may well excite the admiration of pos- 
terity. 

342. Paul III.— With the death of Pius II came the ad- 
vent of four popes who, one after the other, seemed by the 



250 • REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

successive increasing worldliness of their character, to have 
incurred the censure or at least the suspicion of posterity. 
Paul II who came to the papal throne in 1464 displayed an 
excessive fondness for money and extravagant display. Yet 
he was not without some zeal for the good of the Church, as 
was shown in his endeavors to correct abuses. He was also 
one of the first to see the demoralizing influence of the ex- 
treme followers of the humanistic movement, and acted with 
severity towards certain persons who tried to introduce pagan 
rites and ceremonies. 

343. Sixtus IV (1471) was a man whose character con- 
sisted of violent contracts and extremes. Of him we may 
say with truth there was no mediocrity, either of virtue or 
of badness. The partiality that he showed towards his rela- 
tives, the vengeful spirit that he showed towards his enemies, 
and his unscrupulousness in many matters brought upon him 
the odium of his contemporaries. And yet he was not utterly 
void of ecclesiastical activity and some compensating qualities. 
Lovers of art will gratefully remember his patronage of 
Michael Angelo, Raphael, and others, and philanthropists will 
praise his attempt to end the disputes between Christian 
princes, 

344. Innocent VIII (1484) was also notorious for his 
love of money, and under his reign ecclesiastical affairs seem 
to have received less attention than during the time of his two 
predecessors. 

345. Alexander VI succeeded Innocent VIII in 1492, and 
this pope perhaps more than any other seems to have incurred 
the blame of posterity for the badness of his private life. So 
conflicting are the opinions of modern historians, and so con- 
tradictory is the evidence of even contemporary writers of 



ALEXANDER VI 25 1 

his time that even the impartial observer must experience a 
great difficulty in forming a just estimate. It is true that 
Italian writers living in his age, describe him as a monster 
of wickedness, but on the other hand, we find that many of 
those who elected him were remarkable for their sanctity of 
life and shrewd insight into character. Of the most serious 
crimes alleged against him there is no evidence. We may 
perhaps, sum up the character of Alexander VI in the words 
of a French writer wdio says : " The more attentively and 
thoroughly original documents of the history of that period 
are studied the more clear will it become that the memory 
of Alexander VI has been fearfully calumniated. True 
criticism has long since cleared the name of Alexander VI of 
the charge of poisoning and of the other horrible crimes that 
had been groundlessly imputed to him by the revengeful jour- 
nalists and scandal-mongers of that age and country. The 
implacable hostility of the reformers and the resentment of 
France because of the political attitude of Alexander VI have 
also contributed not a little to blacken his memory." 

Though not the monster that some would have him to be, 
yet Alexander VI certainly showed too great discrepancy be- 
tween his private life and the dignity and sanctity of his office. 

346. Naples and Sicily. — The kingdom of Naples presented 
a very strong contrast to the rest of Italy. Ever since its con- 
quest by the Normans in the twelfth century it had retained 
a very strong element of feudal government. It also differed 
from the other Italian states in having been so long under 
different foreign rulers. 

347. French Rule.— In the thirteenth century the king- 
dom of Naples and Sicily was governed by Manfred, repre- 
sentative of the Ghibelline or anti-papal party in Italy. Pope 
Urban IV, in order to crush this powerful rival offered the 



_\;- REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

kingdom of Naples and Sicily to Charles, Count of Anjou and 
brother of Louis IX. Charles, who was full oi ambition, 
gladly accepted the offer and took possession of the gift by 
armed force. The French, however, did not remain long 
in possession. On Easter Monday evening. ijSj. there took 
place what is called the Sicilian X'espers. that is to say the 
French were expelled from Sicily by the rebel inhabitants and 
the crown of Sicily was offered instead to the House of 
Aragon. 

348. Division of Naples and Sicily. — The kingdom of 
Naples and Sicily thus became divided and remained so till 
the death of Joanna II, the last heir of the House of Anjou 
in 1435. During her lifetime, she had named king Alfonsus 
of Aragon as her successor. Her choice, however, was very 
unpopular and she was forced to change the name of Alfonsus 
for that of Rene of Anjou. A contest took place between the 
two rival claimants. Partly owing to the duke of Milan, who 
supported Alfonsus. and partly to the treachery of Rene's 
generals, Alfonsus succeeded in ousting his rival, and in 1442 
he took possession of Sicily. Thus the two kingdoms of Na- 
ples and Sicily were once ag-ain united under one monarch. 

3^9. The Reign of Alfonso was characterized by peace, 
order, and justice. Literature and the arts beg"an to flourish, 
hitherto neglected lands were placed under cultivation, anil 
all were united in praise of Alfonso the Magnificent. 

350. Rival Claims. — When, however. Alfonso died in 
145S there was discord again. To his son Ferdinand the late 
king had left the kingdom of Naples, and to his brother John 
he had left Sicily, \*alencia, and Sardinia. 

It will be remembered, however, that the House of Anjou 
for several years had reigned in Naples. The claim of the 
House of Anjou was again revived in the person of Rene le 



SPAIX 253 

Bon, who owing to infirmity resigned his pretensions to his 
son John of Calabria. But the House of Anjou failed to 
establish its claim mainly on account of the jealousy of Louis 
XI of France. Ferdinand I was thus secured in the posses- 
sion of Naples. The French claim still lingered, but the 
kingdom of Naples on the whole remained faithful to the 
House of Aragon. In any case the sentiment of the other 
rulers of Italy was quite against any French domination in the 
South of Italy. 

Spain 

351. Spanish Kingdoms. — During the early and later mid- 
dle ages, the whole energy of Spain had been directed to the 
great contest with the Moors. But at the time that she was 
succeeding in expelling the Moors there began to be formed 
certain Christian kingdoms which continually increased in size 
and importance. 

By the middle of the fifteenth century the most important 
of these kingdoms were as follows : Navarre in the north- 
WT.st, Castile and Aragon in the center, Portugal in the east. 
and the Moorish kingdom of Granada in the south. All 
these kingdoms were quite distinct from one another. Each 
had its own tongue, national sentiment, past laws and tradi- 
tions. It was only in the fifteenth century that there began 
to appear certain formative influences which with extraor- 
dinary rapidity brought these scattered kingdoms together 
into one solid and powerful state. 

352. Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella. — The immediate 
cause of the rapid union of Spain was the marriage between 
King Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. Of this 
union, the ultimate results were the conquest of Granada from 
the Moors, the acquisition of Navarre, and even for some time 
the annexation of Portugal. 

It was the policy of Ferdinand to establish in the two king- 



254 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

doms of Castile and Aragon a strong central government. 
This he did by first weakening these elements in the state that 
were most opposed to the royal authority. 

353- Opposition to Union. — First there was the feudal 
element. The nobles still enjoyed a considerable amount of 
private jurisdiction and they still formed the fighting strength 
of the country. Ferdinand sought to diminish this impor- 
tance of the nobility by forming a standing army at the ex- 
pense of the state. At the same time he increased throughout 
the land, the power of the law courts, and all offenders, no 
matter of what rank, were punished with equal severity. 

Another element that tended to thwart the growing power 
of the crown was the Cortes. These Cortes were assemblies 
of representatives of the Spanish nation. At first, only the 
higher classes of the people were represented, but as the towns 
gradually rose in importance, these also were allowed to send 
representatives. Naturally the kings viewed the Cortes with 
distrust and jealousy, and even in the early part of the fifteenth 
century the kings of Castile had succeeded in reducing the 
popular power of the administration. King Ferdinand con- 
tinued this policy by reducing the power of even the higher 
orders of the Cortes, namely of the nobles. 

354. Means of Extending the Royal Povi^er. — One of the 

most powerful means by which Ferdinand strove to expand 
the authority of the crown was by means of the Inquisition. 
This began in the twelfth century when the bishops and their 
assistants constituted a court of inquiry to find out and punish 
heretics. It was further developed in the thirteenth century 
by Pope Innocent III, and reached its full growth in the 
fifteenth century. But even at this time the Inquisition did 
not deal with heretics and apostates merely as such, but only 
when they boldly and publicly taught their doctrines to others. 
The inquisition that was established in Spain differed con- 



I 



FERDINAND AND ISABELLA 255 

siderably from the general inquisition of the Church. This 
was in its organization and purpose a rehgious institution 
whereas the Spanish inquisition was a national political or- 
ganization. Its aim was to increase the power of the crown 
and to set up some power in opposition to that of the nobility. 
It is true that its main ostensible object was to crush heresy, 
but the real interest was to reach at persons who were sus- 
pected of treason. 

Not only was Ferdinand singularly successful in his home 
policy, but in his relations with foreign powers he managed 
to form important connections with nearly all the chief coun- 
tries of Europe. By his wife Isabella he had four daughters : 
Isabella, Joanna. Catharine, and Mary. Isabella and Mary 
married into Portuguese houses, and thus prepared the way for 
the temporary annexation to Spain of the kingdom of Port- 
ugal. Joanna married Philip, son of Maximilian of Ger- 
many. Catharine was wedded to Henry VIII of England. 
Of these marriages the most important was that betw^een 
Philip and Joanna, since Charles, their son, ultimately be- 
came sole ruler of Spain and the Hapsburg possession. To 
these vast possessions in Europe were added the newly dis- 
covered lands in the western continent. It was the treasures 
of Peru and IMexico that supplied the " sinews of war " for 
Spain on the continent of Europe. 

355. Cardinal Ximenes. — This success of the royal house 
was brought about chiefly by the skill of the distinguished 
minister. Cardinal Ximenes. He was one of the first of the 
brilliant clerical statesmen for which the sixteenth century be- 
came so famous. He was a saintly and humble man, sin- 
gularly free from greed of money or power. He was also a 
statesman of consummate ability, and by his prudence and 
firm decision in arduous movements, no doubt contributed more 
than any other man to the future greatness of his country. 



256 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

England 

356. The Tudor Dynasty.— The fifteenth century saw in 
England the estabhshment of the Tudor dynasty in the person 
of Henry VII (1485). He was a man whose character very 
niucli resembled that of Louis XI of h'rance. except that he 
lacked some of the latter 's most odious qualities. He was 
exceedingly cunning and shrewd, and he did his best to con- 
tinue the policy of royal despotism begun by Edward IV. 

Already, the old feudal nobility, which had been such a 
rival of the royal power, had been greatly diminished by the 
Wars of the Roses, and Henry VII sought to diminish the 
power of even those nobles that remained. A statute was 
passed which enacted that no nobleman should be allowed 
to keep more than a certain number of retainers, also the 
offices of state, instead of being distributed among the no- 
bility were now entrusted to persons of the middle class w-ho 
were naturally more dependent upon the king. 

357. Ways of Raising Money. — Parliament, the great safe- 
guard of the liberties of the people was summoned as seldom 
as possible. In order to get money for carrying on the gov- 
ernment, Henry VII was obliged to have recourse to other 
sources. He resorted to benevolences or iorced gifts of 
which the only good thing that can be said is that the money 
was extorted from the rich and not from the poor. Perhaps 
the most grievous of Henry's financial methods was the in- 
fliction of huge fines for offenses committed under obsolete 
statutes. 

358. Court of Star Chamber. — One important legal feature 
of Henry VII's was the institution of the Court of Star Cham- 
ber. This was a revival of the old criminal jurisdiction of 
the king's permanent council of state. The object of it is 



COURT OF STAR CHAMBER 257 

made sufficiently clear from the words of ^^lorton, Archbishop 
of Canterbury, who speaking in the king's behalf, says as fol- 
lows : " The true way is to stop the seeds of sedition and re- 
bellion in the beginning, to devise, confirm, and quicken good 
and wholesome laws against riots and unlawful assemblies 
of people and all combinations and federations of them by 
liveries, tokens, and other badges of factious independence; 
that the peace of the land may by these ordinances, as by 
bars of iron, be solidly bound in and strengthened, and all 
force both in court, country and private houses be suppressed." 
It is true that this statute aimed at the unruly nobles. But 
the expedient was dangerous, and it lead to great abuses under 
future kings, for the prisoner was not tried by jury or accord- 
ing to the methods of the common law. 

359. Henry VIII. — Henry VH died in 1509 and w'as suc- 
ceeded by his second son the infamous Henry VHI, under 
whose reign the despotism of the Tudors w^as destined to 
reach its most odious extremes. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Effects of the Hundred Years' War on France — Important 
aid rendered by Agnes Sorel — Growing power of the monarchy 
— Character of Louis XI — He subdues the rebellions of the 
nobles partly by force, partly by diplomac\- • — Contest between 
Louis XI and Duke Charles of Burgundy — Failure of the 
French policy of Duke Charles — The German policv of Duke 
Charles and its failure — Success of Louis XI foreign policv — 
Louis XI succeeded by Charles VIII — Disunion of Germany — 
Forces that made for and against German unity — Character of 
Frederick III — His attempts to introduce order and unity — 
Failure of these attempts and consequent losses in Italy — Forma- 
tion of the Suabian League — Territorial expansion of the Haps- 
burg dominions — Reign of Maximilian — His character and ac- 
complishments — Reforms accomplished by the estates under 
Berthold of Maintz — Effect of those reforms — Success of Max- 
imilian's foreign policy — Character of the separate cit\' — States 
of Italy — Their political independence and isolation — Five 



258 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 

prominent city states — Milan and the power of the Visconti — 
Administration of Gian GalUazzo Visconti — Francesco Sforza, 
founder of a new dynasty — Venice and her pecuhar position — 
The power centered in the Grand Council — Administration of 
Tommaso Mocegno — Expansion of Venice under the doge 
Francesco Foscari — the Republic of Florence ascendency of 
the Albizzi — Successful rivalry of the Medici — Cosmo de 
Medici — Lorenzo the Magnificent — Quarrel between Lorenzo 
and Sixtus IV — The court of Lorenzo — Rome — Extent of 
Papal States — Evils of the Great Schism — Nicholas V heals 
the Schism — Pius II — His learning and piety — Paul II — 
Sixtus IV — Innocent VIII — Alexander VI — Observations on 
the supposed wickedness of the popes — Peculiar feudal govern- 
ment of Naples and Sicily — The Sicilian Vespers — Rivalry 
between French and Spanish claimants — Reign of Alphonsus — 
Ferdinand I secured in the possession of Naples — The most 
important kingdoms of Spain — Union of Castille and Arragon 
— Policy of Ferdinand — The power of the nobles and of the 
cortes is lessened — Nature of the Spanish Inquisition — Its dif- 
ference from the church inquisition — Ferdinand's successful 
foreign policy — Character of Henry VII of England — He sub- 
dues the power of the nobles — Influence of Parliament is re- 
duced — Institution and nature of the court of the Star Cham- 
ber — Accession of Henry VIII. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Philip de Commines, Memoirs; Lodge, Close of Middle Ages; Kitchin, 
History of France; Duruy, History of France; Keik, History of Charles 
the Bold; Adams, Groivth of the French Nation; Masson, Medieval 
France; Henderson, History of Germany; Menzel, History of Germany; 
Leger, Austria-Hungary; Janssen, History of German People at the 
Close of the Middle Ages; Tuttle, History of Prussia; Oliphant, 
Makers of Florence ; Pastor, History of the Popes; Armstrong, Lorenzo 
de Medici; Symonds, Age of Despots; Duffy, Tuscan Republics; Brown, 
Venetian Republics ; Alzog, Ecclesiastical History; Robinson, Readings 
in European History; Watts, Christian Recovery of Spain; Prescott, 
History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella; Hume, The Spanish 
People; Irving, Conquest of Granada; Lea, History of the Inquisition of 
the Middle Ages; York-Powell and Tout, History of England; Stubbs, 
Constitutional History of England; Letters de Rois, Reines et autres Per- 
sonages des Cours de France et Angleterre depuis Louis VII jusqua 
Henry IV (ed. of Champollion-Figeac) ; Calendar of State Papers re- 
lating to English Affairs (in Archives of Venice) ; Varchi, Storia 



GENERAL REFERENCE 259 

Fiorentina; Leonetti, Papa Allcsandro VI, Bologne; Bramante, Storia 
di Paulo IV. 



CHAPTER XVII 

CHARACTER OF THE MODERN PERIOD 

360. Nature of the Division Between Medieval and Mod- 
ern History. — Medieval history is supposed to end and mod- 
ern history, to begin during the sixteenth century. And yet 
it would be a mistake to draw a hard and fast line between the 
two periods. Certain principles and forces that were existent 
during the middle ages still continued and exist to-day. 
Moreover, certain _^ features that we consider essentially mod- 
ern, could be found even in the medieval period. There is 
always the medieval man, and there is always the modern 
man, only that as time advances one or the other of these 
two may predominate. In every period of history there are 
the mystics and the idealists, and there is no age in which 
one cannot find some men that prefer to deal with solid, ma- 
terial facts. 

And yet historians not without reason draw a distinction 
between medieval and modern history. For during the six- 
teenth century there appeared new forces which began to di- 
vert the history of civilized races into entirely new channels. 
The effect which the Renaissance had in lifting the majority 
of men out of their old habits of thought and action, the 
recent doctrine of balance of power in Europe, the remarkable 
changes in the economic condition of Europe, and the re- 
ligious restlessness that characterized the age — all these 
tended to transform in many ways the action of the great 
drama of history. 

361. Characteristics of Modern History. — We find, for 
example that the geographical area of historical movements 

260 



MODERN HISTORY 26 1 

was considerably narrowed. Whereas, in medieval times such 
movements as feudalism and the struggle between empire and 
papacy practically covered the whole area of Europe ; we find 
that the movements of modern history are pent up within local 
areas. It is true that such movements as the Reformation 
took place in many parts of Europe. But they now assume 
distinctly different types, according to the nature of the state 
in which they take place. 

We shall also find in modern history a greater number of 
dramatic positions and a better field for heroic action than 
during the medieval period. For the separate states had by 
the fifteenth century attained to a stronger individual life. 
Each had its own individual ambitions and policy and the clash 
of interests became more frequent and violent. 

Also the threads of connection in modern history differ 
from those of medieval history. The empire and the papacy 
formed the two important threads of connection running all 
through the medieval period, from Constantine down to the 
papal captivity at Avignon. But in modern history it is the 
balance of power that forms the main connecting thread. 
There is no time in modern history in which we do not find 
political combinations between European powers tending by 
their even balance to preserve the equilibrium and peace of 
Europe. 

Such in general is the difference between medieval and mod- 
ern history. It will now be helpful to consider in detail some 
of the altered conditions of human society that appear in the 
fifteenth century. 

362. Geographical Changes. — The fifteenth century had 
been remarkable for important geographical discoveries. As 
early as 1433 Prince Henry of Portugal had discovered the 
Madeiras and the Azores in the Atlantic, and what was still 
more important, the western coast of Africa. After this, at- 



262 MODERN PERIOD 

tempts were made to circumnavigate the wliole of the African 
continent, and in 1487 Batholomew Diaz, also a Portuguese, 
rounded the Cape of Good Hope. But this event was not 
followed by any important result. The honor of accomplish- 
ing the complete journey to India by going round the south 
coast of Africa w^as reserved for Vasco de Gama, who having 
been entrusted with a fleet for that purpose by the king of 
Portugal, arrived at the Malabar coast of India in 1498. 

363. Discovery of America. — Spain then took the lead in 
voyages of discovery. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese 
sailor, obtained from Isabella of Castile the ships and money 
with which to explore the western routes of the Atlantic. He 
thus stumbled in 1492 upon the continent of America, which 
was added to the Spanish possessions. The continent, how- 
ever, was not named after Columbus, but after Amerigo Ves- 
pucci, an Italian navigator who was believed by some to have 
been the first to touch American soil.' This, however, was 
an error and arose partly from the fact that Vespucci deliber- 
ately antedated his first voyage making it out to be in 1497 
instead of 1499 — though there is no evidence to show that 
Vespucci had designed that the continent should be named 
after him. What really procured him this honor was the 
circumstance that his accounts of the voyage considerably pre- 
ceded those of his fellow-discoverer, Columbus. 

The results of these and of other less important discoveries 
had a lasting effect on the history of Europe. Hitherto the 
Mediterranean had been the chief scene of the sailor's activi- 
ties, now it was the wide ocean. From another point of view 
it was one step further in the mighty progress of civilization 
from the east toward the west. 

364. Change of the Old Trade Routes. — At that time, 
Europe was dependent upon the East for most of the luxuries 




D EXPLORATIONS 

OF THE 

rD 17th CEXTURIES 



40" tast 60 



COMMERCE 263 

of medieval life, for such things, for example, as the finer 
kinds of glass and porcelain, rare woods and dyes, perfumes, 
drugs, and especially spices. All these articles of commerce 
were conveyed from the East to the West by well known trade 
routes. These trade routes converged upon Venice, and then 
followed the Danube and the Rhine to the towns of northern 
Europe. The Mediterranean towns thus became the general 
marts and clearing houses, and it was upon this commerce 
that Venice and other Italian cities depended for their enor- 
mous profits and wealth. But now the blockage of the old 
trade routes by the aggressions of the Turks combined with 
the discovery of a new trade route to India and the East, in 
such a way as to cause a most rapid decline in the power of the 
old Mediterranean cities. And not only these, but the cities 
on the Rhine as well began to share in the general depression 
of trade. 

On the other hand, the countries bordering on the Atlantic 
experienced a corresponding increase of commercial prosper- 
ity. The fleets of England, France, Spain, and Holland grew 
in size and strength. Between England and Holland espe- 
cially there quickly sprang up a keen rivalry for the carry- 
ing trade of the world. 

Widening of the Markets. — The markets became suddenly 
widened. Till now trade had been carried on only within 
certain small areas, or at most, only on certain lines. Man- 
ufacturers for example, would cater only to the town in which 
they lived, and commercial operations were confined to certain 
classes of goods. But now the manufacturers would seek for 
customers in the most distant parts of the world, and instead 
of small retail dealers, large companies were formed that 
carried on business on a hitherto unprecedented scale. 

365. Rise of Diplomacy. — Some kind of diplomacy had 
always been in existence even from the earliest times. For 



264 MODERN PERIOD 

there had always been the need of drawing up treaties and ar- 
ranging alhances offensive and defensive between different 
nations. Also there was the necessity for certain persons to 
act as messengers between one state and another. Hence we 
read in ancient history of envoys being sent from the Persians 
to the Greeks, and in later times, from the Jewish people to 
the Romans. But it was only in the fifteenth century that 
diplomacy began to flourish as an art, and that resident am- 
bassadors began to make their appearance. 

The custom of employing resident ambassadors seems to 
have begun with the kings of Poland and Sweden, while the 
Knights of St. John also had the same officials under the title 
of procurators. Rome itself early adopted the practice of 
sending out to the different courts of Europe her Cardinal 
legates and her nuncios — the last being often simple laymen. 

366. Venetian Diplomacy. — But of all the states it seems 
to have been Venice that brought diplomacy to perfection as 
an art. Her extensive trade naturally placed her in unceasing 
contact with other states and there speedily arose the neces- 
sity of employing permanent officials who might represent her 
interests in foreign parts and collect useful information. By 
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries her ambassadors were to 
be found in every court of Europe. All eyes were turned 
towards Venice as the one great center of diplomatic activity. 
Foreign states often got information about one another's 
movements through Venice. The number of important let- 
ters and other documents collected in the archives in Venice 
became enormous and at the present day, form a most valuable 
treasury of information to the historian and antiquarian. 

The Venetian ambassadors themselves were men of ripe 
experience and distinguished for sagacity and tact. Only 
nobles were admitted to the diplomatic profession, and they 
had to be past the age of thirty-eight. One useful regulation 



ART OF II AR 265 

was that no ambassador should remain at the same court more 
than three years. This, no doubt, arose partly from the sus- 
picions of the Venetian government, but it was also owing to 
the desire of widening the experience of the diplomatic staff. 

367. The Art of War. — The art of war as well as that of 
diplomacy underwent inii)ortant transformations. 

Till now, the chief fighting strength of an army consisted 
in its cavalry. During the middle ages, the man on horse- 
back was generally a synonym 'for a person of gentle birth. 
In fact there were strong points of resemblance between the 
old Roman eques or knights and the medieval horseman or 
knight. They were men of skill and ability and contrasted 
forcibly with the boorish dimensions of the foot soldier. By de- 
grees, however, the condition of the medieval horseman declined. 
Not only was there sometimes a difficulty in finding men of 
noble birth to fill vacant places, but the fighting value of the 
horseman considerably diminished. Custom had made his 
armor ridiculously heavy. He was like a moving castle, and 
if he happened to fall, it was exceeding difficult for him to 
rise again. ^Moreover, he was of use only on the open plain, 
where there were no small fortifications or ditches to oppose 
his progress. 

While the cavalry thus dwindled in importance, the rise of 
infantry became more and more pronounced. The value of 
the foot soldier had been early demonstrated even on the fields 
of Crecy, Agincourt. and Bannockburn, and by the fifteenth 
century battles were decided by the comparative efficiency of 
the infantry on either side. 

368. Standing Armies. — During the reign of Louis XI 
a large .standing arm\- was formed of ten thousand French 
infantry. This was afterwards reinforced by a large body of 
German infantry. But the morals and discipline of the men 



266 MODERN PERIOD 

were bad, and they were not nearly so serviceable as the Swiss 
infantry. The men that formed the Swiss infantry were well 
trained and disciplined, and as has already been pointed out, 
they shattered the power of Charles of Burgundy on the bat- 
tle-field of Granson. 

Even superior to the Swiss was the Spanish infantry. 
During the long wars against the Moors they had acquired 
great reputation, and afterwards they became known as the 
very best in Europe. 

369. Introduction of Artillery. — Another great change in 
the method of warfare was brought in by the use of artillery. 
Already in 1312 we read of the Moors using artillery against 
the Spaniards, and again in 1337 we are told that the Scots 
used bombards in the siege of Sterling Castle in Scotland. In 
the fifteenth century, the old-fashioned hand gun became 
greatly improved and was transformed into the arquebus, a 
weapon in wdiich the firing of the powder took place with cer- 
tainty and far greater speed. It is evident that the use of 
artillery must have played a very important part in doing 
away with the castle and the knight, the two main features of 
medieval warfare. 

370. The Professional Soldier. — A radical change also took 
place in regard to the status of the soldier. During the mid- 
dle ages, there was no complete separation between citizen and 
soldier. The man at the plow or the man at the forge had 
of necessity to take part in all his country's wars. The 
fifteenth century saw the end of this universal conscription, 
and we 'find instead mercenary soldiers. These men were 
specially trained in the art of warfare, adopting it as a pro- 
fession, and were frequently hired by the sovereigns of Europe 
to fight their battles. Erom henceforth the profession of war- 
fare is generally distinct from the civilian professions. 



SUMMARY AND REFERENCE. 267 

371. Formation of the Modern Period. — Such are the main 
changes in the condition of European societ}- at this time. 
And when we bear in mind the other changes that must have 
been introduced by the different inventions of printing, of the 
telescope and of the microscope, as well as by the increased 
comfort and luxury throughout all classes of society we can 
clearly realize the altered character of the period of history on 
which we are now entering". \\'e shall find it a period fraught 
with deep and earnest problems and having so close a connec- 
tion w'ith our own times, full of intense interest. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

No strict line of distinction between medieval and modern his- 
tory — New forces appearing in the sixteenth century — 
Changes of geographical areas of action — New threads of con- 
tinnity — Discoveries in the New World — Columbus and \'es- 
pucci — Change in the old trade routes — Widening of the mar- 
kets — Rise of diplomacy — The custom of sending out resi- 
dential ambassadors — Changes in the art of war — Infantry 
more popular than cavalry — The French standing army — Use 
of artillery — Professional militarism. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Windsor, Columbus; Fiske, Discovery of America; Stephens, Portu- 
gal; Beazley, Prince Henry; Prescott, Conquest of Peru; Rogers, 
Economic Interpretation of History; Grose, History of the Army of 
England; Glenie, History of Germany; Wraxell, History of France; 
Davis, Art of War; Grose, Treatise on Ancient Armour; Brett, Pic- 
torial and Descriptive record of origin and development of arms and 
armor. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

ITALY THE CENTER OF FOREIGN POLITICS 

372. Charles VIII. — We have already seen that the king- 
dom of Naples had been a subject of dispute between France 
and Aragon. Although the House of Aragon retained the 
victorious possession of the kingdom, the French claim still 
lingered on and was again very actively revived when Charles 
VIII ascended the French throne (1483). 

Charles VIII though stunted and deformed both in body 
and mind was endowed with sufficient nervous restlessness 
to make him enter upon an expedition for the conquest of the 
kingdom of Naples. In this he was also urged on by some of 
his ministers, who were in the pay of the Italian envoys. Nor 
were there wanting circumstances favorable to the enterprise. 
Naples if obtained would serve as a good basis of operations 
in Charles' intended crusade against the Turks. And, as far 
as the states of Italy were concerned, everything seemed fa- 
vorable for such an enterprise. Ludovico Sforza of Milan, 
hoping that he would be protected in his duchy even sent a 
special invitation to Charles to undertake the expedition. 
Venice was neutral. In Florence there was a strong pro- 
French party, headed by the monk Savonarola, while ene- 
mies of the Pope, Alexander VI, were hoping that a French 
descent would prove fatal to the Pope's schemes of family 
aggrandizement. 

373. Charles VIII Enters Italy.— In 1494. Charles made 
his celebrated descent into Italy. Everything proved favor- 
able. Milan received him with open arms, at Florence Pietro 
de Medici, greatly to the disgust of the Florentines ceded to 

269 



270 ITALY THE CENTER OF FOREIGN POLITICS 

him important towns; at Rome, the pope was forced to make 
a treaty advantageous to Charles, and in Naples itself Ferdi- 
nand, his opponent, was compelled to withdraw owing to the 
ill will of his subject citizens. 

374. Charles, Master of Naples. — Charles entered Naples 
without opposition. Oriental splendor and magnificence at- 
tended his accession to the Neapolitan throne. With a glove 
in one hand and a scepter in the other, he received the accla- 
mations of his joyful subjects. But the space of one short week 
saw the downfall of his hopes. His subjects became dis- 
contented at being shut out from the high offices of state while 
the city treasury became every day more exhausted. More 
than all, alarming rumors reached him regarding the at- 
titude of the other Italian states. 

375. Italy Rises Against Charles VIII. — Charles' unex- 
pected and overwhelming success had brought about a com- 
plete revulsion of feeling. His closest friend Ludovico 
Sforza was offended by being refused the promised principality 
of Taranto, while the other Italian states viewed with dis- 
trustful alarm the menace of the French power so rapidly ris- 
ing in Italy. Even foreign princes felt alarm at the prepon- 
derance of French interests. The envoys of the discontented 
states met secretly at Venice and formed a league against the 
French. The members of the league were Milan, Venice, the 
Pope, Ferdinand of Aragon and Maximilian of Germany. 

Charles decided that the wisest course was to return to 
France. But he still had time to commit the mistake of nam- 
ing the incapable Marquis of Montpensier as regent of Naples 
during his absence. 

376. Retreat of Charles VIII. — In haste Charles pursued 
his journey to the north of Italy. The confederates of the 



FRENCH IN ITALY 27 1 

League were equally quick and at Fornovo (1495) the hos- 
tile forces engaged in battle. Victory so far favored Charles 
that he succeeded in making his escape and continuing his 
journey safely to France. 

Naples was soon afterwards taken by Gonsalvo of Cordova, 
a Spanish general, and Ferdinand again took possession of 
his kingdom after an absence of three months. 

377. Results of the Invasion. — The descent of Charles 
VIII into Italy though dramatic, was a mere episode as far as 
direct results were concerned. But it had an indirect in- 
fluence upon European politics. States began to look beyond 
their own frontiers and to dream of foreign conquest. Wider 
views began to be entertained of international relations. 
And the league that was formed against Charles was the first 
of a series that were to roll in rapid succession over the tu- 
multuous sea of Italian politics. 

Charles VIII lived only three years after his expedition 
into Italy. He died in 1498, and owing to. want of direct 
heirs, he was succeeded by a prince of a collateral line in the 
person of Louis of Orleans. 

378. Louis XII's reign was more important in its foreign 
than in its domestic policy. Even more than was the case 
with his predecessor, there were reasons why he should inter- 
fere in Italy. He still inherited the French claim upon 
Naples, and the condition of Italy was even more favorable 
for French intervention than when Charles undertook his ex- 
pedition. Venice and Milan were at war with each other, 
Florence was occupied in besieging Pisa, while the pope had 
everything to hope from the French. 

379. Louis XII. Active in Italy.— With skilled diplomacy 
Louis secured active allies in Italy. He promised the pope 



272 ITALY THE CENTER OF FOREIGN POLITICS 

the assistance of French troops in order to save Romagna for 
Caesar Borgia, the pope's son. Regarding Naples, Louis 
even persuaded Ferdinand, King of Spain, to consent to the 
dethronement of his relative Frederick, King of Naples. 

Such brilliant prospects only showed how accident may 
sometimes mar the most skilled diplomacy. Frederick, it is 
true, was driven out of Naples, but in the moment of victory, 
Louis and Ferdinand began to quarrel about their share of 
the spoils. Again the French were driven out of Naples and 
this time their expulsion was permanent. 

380. Pope Julius II. — Italy, however, did not remain long 
in peace. In 1503, Pope Julius II ascended the papal throne. 
He had all the talents of a warrior as well as the astuteness of 
a diplomat, and he was determined to extend the papal states 
in Italy. Louis XII on the other hand still dreamed of for- 
eign conquests and the result was another coalition of Eu- 
ropean powers, this time against Venice. 

381. League of Cambray. — By the fifteenth century Ven- 
ice, owing to its power and splendor, towered high among 
even the prominent states of Italy. Secure in her island 
home, she was also mistress of the greater part of the lands 
that had accrued to her from the Fourth Crusade. Her pol- 
icy of passivity in most of the intestinal wars of Italy had also 
been the means of securing important possessions on the west- 
ern mainland. In the south she still owned the five Apulian 
ports that had been ceded to her by Ferdinand of Aragon in 
return for assistance in driving the French from Naples. 

382. Venetian Possessions Invite Attack. — But her very 
position of strength and external display drew upon her the 
jealousy and active ill will of certain powers whose cupidity 
was also excited by the prospect of gain at her cost. The 



DEFEAT OF J- EN ICE 273 

pope regarded with a wistful eye her possessions of Faenza, 
Rimini, and Ravenna, and he was angry at the refusal of 
Venice to allow one of his nephews to be raised to the See of 
Vicenza. The king of France was casting a covetous eye over 
Cremona. Bergamo and Brescia; Maximilian was filled with 
rage at their betraying to the French king his design of driv- 
ing the French out of Italy, and was also viewing with eager 
eye the tempting bait of the five Apulian cities. 

Venice thus became to these different states what China is 
to the present states of Europe, and a policy of partition was 
soon set on foot. In spite of some little difference between 
Margaret of Austria and Cardinal d' Amboise. who w'as then 
the prime minister of France, the League of Cambray was 
formed. Its members were Louis XII, Maximilian of Ger- 
many. Pope Julius II, and Ferdinand of Spain. 

383. The Defeat of Venice. — The Venetian republic was 
undismayed. A large army was raised under the generalship 
of the Count of Petigliano, a man of skill and cautious tact, 
but in fire and impetuous dash, inferior to his second in com- 
mand, d'Alviano. The French aided by the Sw^iss hastened 
to meet the Venetian army at Vaila. A decisive engagement 
ensued, in which the Venetians were completely routed. The 
French advanced even to the very walls of Venice. At the 
same time the papal troops took possession of the Venetian 
towns in the Romagna. while the emperor Maximilian seized 
the important places of Istria and Friuli. 

Thus at one blow was shattered the fal)ric of continental 
dominion that had cost Venice over a century to erect. Her 
forces were scattered, her treasury was depleted, and hVance 
was already preparing a navy wdiose probable destination was 
the Adriatic. 

384 Venice Recovers From the Blow. — But in the hour 
of deadly peril, Venice showed remarkable calmness and 



274 ITALY THE CENTER OF FOREIGN POLITICS 

extraordinary powers of recuperation. The city itself was 
by unprecedented efforts girded round with well-nigh impreg- 
nable defenses, and soon Venetian diplomacy combined with 
changing circumstances to dissolve the league altogether. With 
such a bitter enemy as France they felt it useless to negotiate, 
but by the offer of the city of Ravenna and by humble sup- 
plications for pardon they appealed both to the interest of 
Pope Julius as well as to his sense of personal dignity. Max- 
imilian, it is true, refused to treat without the consent of 
France, but his languid prosecution of the war restored Padua 
to the Venetians, whose galleys began to menace even Friuli 
and Istria. At the same time, either through despair or more 
likely through the dictates of a far-seeing policy, Venice gave 
to her endangered states on the mainland complete independ- 
ence. Her hitherto subject states were now bound to her by 
the strong ties of gratitude and affection, and it was not long- 
before the remnant of the hostile league melted away like snow 
under the sun. 

The results of the League of Cambray were exceedingly 
partial and transitory. It is true that the French, the pope, 
and the other members of the league got something. But the 
real strength of the Venetian Requblic still remained. Com- 
mercially, her trade was unimpaired. Politically, she still re- 
mained one of the fixe leading states of Italy. Her greatness, 
indeed, was not destined to last but this w'as owing not to 
the League of Cambray but to the transference of the old 
trade routes from the East. 

385. A New League (1511) that was now formed out of 
the debris of the League of Cambray had for its object the 
expulsion of the French out of Italy. Its originator was Pope 
Julius II. He gained as his allies, Maximilian, Ferdinand 
the Catholic. Plenry VIII of England, and even the Swiss who 
had hitherto been the close ally of France. France made a 



LEO X AND FRANCIS I 



75 



\'igoi'ous resistance but the death oi her able general Gaston de 
Foix at Ravenna in the very hour of victory turned the scales 
completely against her. The French were entirely driven out 
of Italy and thus lost the result of all their fifteen years' hard 
fighting and diplomacy. 

Within a short time, the two chief actors in the struggle 
were removed from the scene by death. Pope Julius died in 
1 5 13 and Louis XII in 1515. 



386. Leo X and Francis I. 

— Pope Julius was succeeded 
by Pope Leo X and Louis 
XII by Francis I. Both of 
these were men remarkable 
for ability and were conspic- 
uous for their interest in other 
things besides politics. Leo 
X became celebrated for his 
humanistic tendencies, his pat- 
ronage of the arts and learn- 
ing and for the part which 
he took during the Protestant 

Reformation. Francis I was Pope Leo X, famous for his splendid 

patronage of arts and learning. 

also the patron of art and 

learning not only in France but also throughout Europe. 
Erasmus received tokens of his appreciation and the great 
painter Leonardo da Vinci is sui)posed by some to have died 
in his arms. 

Francis, however, was very far from being a mere cultj,-^ 
vator of the muses. He was a politician of a very active typ^;. 
Italy again became the theatre of French aggressions, and the 
reconquest of Milan became his first object. Opposing -this, 
was a remnant of the old anti-French alliance consisting- of, 
Spain, the pope, and the Swiss. But Venice was on the sid^. 




276 ITALY THE CEXTER OF FOREIGX POLITICS 

of France and engaged the attention of the Spaniards. The 
whole of the French army was thus free to fall npon the 
Swiss, and not only inflicted upon them a crushing defeat 
but also recaptured the city of Milan. 

378. Concordat Between Francis I and Pope Leo X. — 
This ended the wars of French aggression in Italy. Francis 
I resumed his old friendly relations with the Swiss, and at 
Bologna drew up an important concordat (1516) with the 
pope. By this concordat, the first document of its kind, the 
interests of the national French church were made to har- 
monize with the welfare of the Church as a whole. To the 
temporal power was granted the right to confer upon bishops 
and abbots the temporal advantages connected with their office. 
To the spiritual power was reserved the right to confer holy 
orders; in other words, the pope had the right to confer or 
withhold that spiritual element by which alone the candidate 
might be raised to ofiice. This concordat seemed so just and 
so according to the intrinsic fitness of things that it lasted 
three centuries. Though temporarily destroyed by the revolu- 
tion it was revived again in 1802. 

388. England Under Henry VIII. — The accession of 
Henry \'III to the English throne (1509) seemed to augur 
well for the prosperity of England. He was endowed with 
great natural ability, and was in many ways highly accom- 
plished. As a statesman he had a shrewd insight into men's 
characters and could choose his ministers well. He was also 
capable of forming and successfully carrying out a broad and 
far-sighted policy. Together with all this he seemed a re- 
ligious man. heard mass frequently and took interest in theo- 
logical questions. The only evil symptom as yet discernible 
was a certain headstrong rashness of character pardonable in 
a royal youth. 



ENGLISH I'OLITICS 277 

389. Cardinal Wolsey. — The minister who at first more 
than any other guided Henry's pohcy was Cardinal Wolsey, 
a man of practical abihty, with great influence over the king, 
and sagacious enough not to contradict his master's will when 
once it was made. 

390. Foreign Politics. — Henry's first intervention in for- 
eign politics was on the occasion of his joining the Holy 
League to drive the French out of Italy. He invaded France, 
won without effort the battle of Guinegate and took the towns 
of Tourraine and Theraunne. France, as usual, sought to at- 
tack England through Scotland. At the instigation of Fran- 
cis, the Scotch crossed the Tweed and entered the north of 
England. They were met on Flodden Field by the English 
under the Earl of Surrey and were completely vanquished. 

This engagement was practically the last of the war and 
England joined in the general peace. Peace was made be- 
tween England and Scotland while the treaty between Eng- 
land and France was ratified by the marriage of Mary, the 
youngest sister of Henry VHI, to the old French king, who 
however did not long survive. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Charles VIII king of France — Reasons for his intervention 
in Italy — He ascends the throne of Naples — Formation of a 
hostile league against him — Charles now returns — Battle of 
Forovo — Results of Charles VHI's descent into Italy — Louis 
XII king of France — He also interferes in Italian politics — 
French again driven from Naples — Julius II now pope — 
Causes of the league of Cambray — Members of the league and 
their motives — War between Venice and the League — Heroic 
defence made by Venice — Results of the League of Cambray — 
Pope Julius forms a league against the French, who are driven 
from Italy — Pope Leo X and Francis I — Battle of Marignano 
— Concordat of Bologna — Character of Henry VIII — Cardi- 
nal Wolsey — Henry's foreign policy. 



278 ITALY THE CENTER OF FOREIGN POLITICS 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century; Cambridge. Modern His- 
tory; Cheyney, European Background; Dye and Hassall, Modern 
Europe; Lodge, History of Modern Europe; Martin, History of France; 
Desrey, les grands chroniques de Charles VIII; Brewer, History of 
Henry VIII; Pollard, Henry VIII; Creighton, Cardinal Wolsey; 
Chelard, Charles VIII et rcxpedition d'ltalie. 



i 



CHAPTER XIX 

RIVALRY BETWEEN FRANCIS I AND THE EMPEROR CHARLES V 

391. Imperial Succession. — The death of the Emperor 
Maximilian in 15 19 was the beginning of a close contest be- 
tween France and the empire — a contest that was destined to 
monopolize the politics of Europe for nearly twenty-five 
years. 

The important question was, " Who shall succeed to 
the imperial throne?" The two possible candidates were 
Francis I of France and King Charles V of Spain, who, 
through the support of Cardinal Ximenes, had succeeded to 
the Spanish throne of his father, the late King Ferdinand. 
In favor of Charles, were the circumstances that he was a 
grandson of the late Maximilian and that Maximilian during 
his lifetime had tried to prepare the way for the future elec- 
tion of Charles. Francis, on the other hand, though not re- 
lated to the late emperor was quite eligible for election and 
was in a strong position to enforce his claim to consideration. 
He had but lately won the battle of Marignano, and was at 
present on good terms with Pope Leo X. 

392. Charles V, — The German descent of Charles as well 
as his more lavish use of bribes and promises brought over 
the electors to his favor. He was therefore on the twenty- 
eighth of June, 1 5 19, elected emperor. 

The election of Charles became of supreme importance in 
the general politics of Europe. He was already master of 
Spain, the Netherlands, Naples, Sicily, Austria, and the New 
World beyond the Atlantic. Together with all these vast 
territorial possessions, he now enjoyed that indefinite juris- 

279 



28o Rll'ALRY BETWEEN FRANCIS I AND CHARLES V 

diction that the imperial dignity still retained over the Ger- 
man principalities. 

393. Character of Charles V. — The personality of Charles 
at once became of paramount interest. His outward appear- 
ance was certainly not impressive. His bodily growth had 
been extremely slow, and even at the age of nineteen, when he 
was elected, he gave small promise of vigorous manhood. 
The feebleness of his health possibly accounted for his usual 
dejected appearance, while his thick, low-hanging underlip 
seemed to indicate extreme sluggishness of intellect. Nor 
did his speech, which was slow and hesitating, contradict the 
unfavorable impression received from his personal appear- 
ance. 

But the inner self and character of Charles were by. no 
means worthy of contempt. His mind was fairly well equip- 
ped with the knowledge necessary for a ruler of those times. 
He had a practical though superficial acquaintance with mod- 
ern languages, and he had been carefully instructed in history 
and in the art of government. More important than these 
mental accomplishments was his character which was distin- 
guished for a certain pertinacity that carried him successfully 
through many dangers and difficulties. 

394. Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. — Almost as soon 
as the election became known the personal rivalry between 
himself and the French king was found to have received in- 
stead of a satisfactory solution, a fresh and rapidly gathering 
momentum. This personal quarrel was aggravated by long 
standing territorial disputes. Navarre, once French, was 
now in Spanish possession, so also was Naples. Charles, on 
the other hand, bitterly resented the loss of Milan recently 
taken by Francis I and he still remembered that Burgundy 
once formed part of the empire. 



JJ\ IRS OF CHARLES AND FRANCIS 281 

Hostilities were not long in breaking out, and in 1520 be- 
gan the long war between France and the empire — a war 
which, with some few short intermissions lasted until the 
treaty of Crespy in 1544. 

For convenience, these wars may be considered in three 
different periods. The first begins with the invasion of Na- 
varre by the French in 1520 and extends down to the treaty 
of Cambray in 1529; the second begins with the French inva- 
sion of Savoy in 1536 and ends with the Truce of Nice in 
1538; the third begins with French invasion of the Nether- 
lands in 1542 and terminates with the Treaty of Crespy in 
1544- 

395. The First Period. — Even at the opening of the cam- 
paign the empire seemed to be fighting with overwhelming 
odds on her side. Not only were the territorial possessions 
exceedingly vast, while the Spainish infantry was considered 
the best in Europe, but Charles had succeeded in enlisting on 
his side the valuable aid of Henry VHI of England and of 
Pope Leo X. Yet the French did not hesitate to begin opera- 
tions by invading Navarre. They took Pampeluna but were 
soon after repulsed and driven altogether out of Navarre. 
The scene of warfare was then changed to Italy. Here again 
the French were unsuccessful. Even if Lautrec their com- 
mander had been as able as he was energetic, the coalition 
that he had to face was overwhelming. The Swiss, under 
the pay of the pope, were turning against him ; even the Vene- 
tians were now unfriendly. It was no wonder, therefore, 
that the imperial troops speedily drove the French out of 
Milan and the Lombardian plain. Nor were matters im- 
proved by the death of Leo X and the accession of Pope 
Clement VII, a former tutor and personal friend of the em- 
peror (1523). The overwhelming success of the French had 
become the cause of their ultimate failure in Italy. 



282 RIl'ALRV BETWEEN FRANCIS I AND CHARLES V 

396. Mutual Invasions. — As if this array of external 
foes in Italy was not sufficient, Francis was now harassed 
by the rebellion of one of his most powerful subjects in the 
person of Charles of Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier and the 
owner of more territory than any other of the vassals of 
Francis. He at once proposed to Henry VHI of England 
and to the emperor a joint invasion of France. His plans, 
it is true, were discovered and he had to fly before the plot 
was matured. But the idea of invading France must have 
appeared to the emperor not only justified by all the odds in 
his favor but as the most likely means of bringing the entire 
war to a sudden and victorious termination. The invasion 
w^as made but the expectations were not realized. The im- 
perial forces laid siege to Marseilles but had to beat a speedy 
retreat. Francis in his turn became elated and carried the 
war into the enemy's country by besieging the town of Pavia. 
His attack on the emperor failed even more miserably than the 
attack of the emperor on him. He suffered an overwhelming 
defeat in the course of which he himself was taken prisoner. 

397. Treaty of Madrid. — This military success, the first 
real blow of the campaign produced a diplomatic revolution. 
As after the league of Cambray, the French drew upon them- 
selves the jealousy and hostility of the other powers, so now 
the sudden overwhelming success of Charles created a cor- 
responding feeling against the Spaniards. Not only in Rome 
and Venice, but even in the English court as well, there rose 
a strong tide of feeling against the Spaniard. And this hos- 
tility was in no way lessened by the harsh terms of the treaty 
of Madrid (1526) imposed by Charles on the captive king. 
The terms were : The abandonment of all claims on Naples. 
Milan, Flanders, and Artois, the restoration of the Duchy of 
Burgundy and a marriage between Francis himself and 
Charles' sister, the dowager queen of Portugal. As security 



THE " LADIES' PEACE" 283 

for his tidelity Francis had to yield two of his sons as hos- 
tages. 

The ink on the paper was scarcely dry when Francis re- 
solved to disregard the treaty. In fact, Francis had signed 
it under compulsion and could scarcely be expected to carry 
through a forced contract of such an odious nature. His con- 
tention was upheld, and France; Florence, Alilan, England, 
and the Swiss entered into another Holy League for the pur- 
pose of forcing the emperor to release the French princes and 
return the city of ]\Iilan to Francesco Sforza. 

398. Capture of Rome. — But the league was loose in its 
construction and as a consequence, its operations were slow 
and ineffective. The imperial troops were able to strike a 
l)old and sudden blow. They marched to Rome, took posses- 
sion of the city and even imprisoned Pope Clement Wil. 
This success caused even wider and deeper impression than 
the battle of Pavia. Florence and Venice now joined the 
league and the French at once adopted a more vigorous plan 
of campaign. The French general, Lautrec, and the Genoese 
admiral, Doria, besieged the city of Naples by sea, and with 
every prospect of success. But the French managed to offend 
Doria just at this critical time. He withdrew his fleet from 
the siege with the result that Naples still remained in the 
hands of the emperor. 

399. Treaty of Cambray. — The hopelessness of striving 
against the strength and good fortune of the emperor were 
apparent. All were longing for peace. In 1529 was signed 
the treaty of Cambray, sometimes called Ladies' treaty, be- 
cause negotiated by Margaret of Austria and Louisa of Sax- 
ony. The terms of the treaty of Madrid were adopted as the 
basis of the new treaty. But Charles agreed to waive his 
claim on Burgundy and to accept a ransom of two million 



284 Rll'ALRy BETWEEN FRANCIS I AND CHARLES V 

crowns for the liberation of his two sons who had been de- 
tained as hostages. 

Even this treaty was too humihating to French pride. 
Moreover, the balance of power in Enrope still remained in 
jeopardy owing to the preponderating strength of Charles 
V. Hostilities were bonnd to break ont again and during the 
next few years France braced up her strength for another 
struggle. 

French diplomacy soon showed itself more successful than 
French military skill. A marriage was arranged between 
Catharine de Medicis, the pope's niece, and the Duke of Or- 
leans. B}' this marriage an alliance was thus effected be- 
tween France and Florence, while the pope himself would now 
naturally regard the interests of France as connected with 
those of his family. 

400. Second Period of the War. — It was not long before 
the religious difficulties in Germany gave France a favorable 
opportunity to strike. A pretext was not wanting. A 
French ambassador on his way to Milan in order to intrigue 
against the emperor was put to death, h^rancis at once sent 
an army to overrun Savoy and Piedmont, and had no scruple 
in allaying himself with Charles' enemy, the Turk. The im- 
perial troops were speedily driven out and the French occupied 
Savoy and Piedmont. Charles was deeply angered and 
sought revenge by carrying hostilities into France itself. 
His troops laid siege to the important towns of Aries and 
Marseilles. But operations in hostile territory are generally 
dependent for success upon their speedy accomplishment. 
The French avoided a pitched battle and merely held the 
cities. Charles being far away from his base of supplies was 
forced to retreat with humiliation and great losses. 

It soon became evident to both sides that neither party had 
any prospect of accomplishing anything by a prolongation of 



A PEACE ARRANGED 285 

hostilities. The presence of the Turk also inclined both sides 
to seek for peace. While Francis was anxious to dissolve 
a pagan alliance that had brought on him the unpopularity 
of Europe, Charles was anxious for peace in order that he 
might be able to check the advance of the Turks. 

401. A Truce for two years was arranged at Nice (1538). 
Hostilities were to cease at once, and it was arranged that 
both parties were to retain their mutual conquests. 

A curious change now took place in the personal relations 
of the two antagonists. Personal friendship now seemed to 
take the place of personal animosity. Not only were friendly 
visits interchanged but the French king gave solid proofs of 
his good will. When Charles' rebellious subjects in Ghent 
wished to betray the city into the hands of the French king, 
the offer was rejected and even disclosed to Charles. Later 
on, he performed for Charles a still more signal service. 
When Charles on his way from Spain to the Low Countries 
wished to pass through France, Francis not only consented 
but treated his host with sumptuous hospitality. Charles out 
of gratitude that was either real or feigned promised to yield 
to the dauphin Henry the possession of Milan. 

When Charles, however, had completed his expedition he 
ignored the promise. Francis was bitterly chagrined and ac- 
cordingly bent on revenge. 

In 1 541 Charles again waged war on the infidel. Contrary 
to the advice of his admiral, he sailed for Algiers, and after 
building a fort on a hill close to the town, began to besiege 
the city. But, on land, his troops were visited by fever and 
on sea his fleet was shattered by a furious storm, Charles 
himself had only a narrow escape and with a few ships re- 
turned to Spain. 

402. Third Period. — Even before Charles had started on 
this ill-starred expedition, Francis had begun hostilities. The 



286 RIVALRY BETWEEN FRANCIS I AND CHARLES V 

war was fought with varying success. Operations were car- 
ried on in Rousillon, Flanders and Piedmont, but nothing de- 
cisive occurred tih the battle of Cerisoles in Piedmont where 
the imperial troops were beaten. On the other hand, Charles 
advanced into Champagne and Henry VIII attacked Bou- 
logne. If Charles had pursued the campaign to the end it is 
probable that France would have been at his mercy. But 
when only two days' march from the city of Paris he sud- 
denly changed his mind and decided on peace. Possibly he 
still dreaded the Turks, probably he was harassed by the 
troubles wath his Protestant subjects at home. Whatever 
his motives may have been Francis now in a dangerous posi- 
tion was equally willing to come to terms. 

403. The Treaty of Crespy was signed (1544) between the 
two sovereigns. This treaty, unlike the two others, gave to 
France reasonable satisfaction. It is true that she still had 
to renounce all claim to Naples, Flanders, and Artois, but on 
the other hand, Charles made a formal renunciation of the 
Duchy of Burgundy. Milan remained in the emperor's hands 
but the French by way of compensation were not called upon 
to surrender Savoy and Piedmont. 

404. General Survey of the War. — In reviewing the whole 
course of the ^^•ar, one cannut but marvel at the pertinacity 
and powers of resistance shown by the French king. The 
odds against him were almost overwhelming, the blows that 
were dealt on him seemed fatal and yet he always rose again 
undaunted and full of confidence in the result. His magna- 
nimity was equal to his courage. Even after Charles' apparent 
perfidy in repudiating the treaty of Madrid he could still 
afford to present the hand of friendship to his dangerous 
rival. 

His own subjects had reason to be grateful for his reign. 



ENGLISH POLITICS 287 

He had successfully defended the frontiers of France, and 
had greatly improved the condition of the army. Some of 
his financial expedients may have been open to question but 
the treasury was able to meet the severe demands that were 
made upon it and to keep up the popular magnificence of his 
court. He also found time to extend throughout the king- 
dom that powerful centralized system of government that in 
a few years' time was to be the main cause of the extraordi- 
nary power and prosperity of France. 

405. England's Foreign Policy. — The foreign policy of 
England during this war had been mainly under the control 
of Cardinal Wolsey. At the beginning of the war England 
had taken the side of the emperor and after the battle of 
Pavia, there seemed to be a fair prospect of using the weak- 
ness of France for an invasion and reconquest. But the 
doctrine of the balance of power seems now to have been the 
prevailing consideration. Peace was now made between 
France and England, and friendly relations remained between 
the two countries until the marriage of Madelaine, daughter 
of the French king, with James V of Scotland. This mar- 
riage roused the king's jealousy of Scotland and seemed to 
recall the days when the Scotch-French alliance had done so 
much harm to England, \\niile Henry became thus es- 
tranged from the h^rench court, a renewed understanding 
grew up between him and the emperor, which as we have 
already seen, resulted in their joint invasion of France just 
before the treaty of Crespy. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Rivalry between Francis I and Charles V for the imperial 
throne — Chances on both sides — Election of Charles — His 
character — Further causes of dispute between him and Francis 
— First period of the war of 1522 to 1529 — War in Spain and 
Italy — Failure first of the Spanish then of the French invasions 



288 RIVALRY BETWEEN FRANCIS I AND CHARLES V 

— The diplomatic revolution — Treaty of Madrid — League 
formed against the imperial forces — Second discomfiture of the 
French — Treaty of Cambray — Renewed preparations for war 

— Second Period of the war 1536 to 1538 — Failure of Charles' 
invasion of France — Truce of Nice — Personal friendship be- 
tween Charles and Francis — Third Period of the War — 1538- 
1544 — Germans and English invade France — Treaty of Crespy 

— General survey of the course of the war — Foreign policy of 
England — Alternate unfriendliness and friendliness with Eng- 
land. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

KiTCHiN, History of France; Johnson, Europe in Sixteenth Century; 
Zeller, I'Histoirc de France; Armstrong, The Emperor Charles V ; 
Robertson, History of the Reign of Emperor Charles V ; Hume, The 
Spanish People; Maxwell, Cloister Life of Charles V ; For English His- 
tory, same as in preceding chapter. 



CHAPTER XX 

THE REFORMATION 

406. Beginning and Nature of the Reformation. — During 
the wars between Francis and Charles, there was slowly in- 
creasing both in volume and in intensity the religious move- 
ment that goes by the name of the Reformation. The contest 
between Charles and Francis and the Reformation chrono- 
logically occupied the same time, and in two or three points 
they touched one another. But they were quite -different in 
their nature and on the whole distinctly separate in their work- 
ings. 

By the Reformation is meant the great separation or schism 
from the Catholic Church. This separation began about the 
commencement of the sixteenth century and has lasted even 
down to our own times. 

There is perhaps scarcely any subject that has aroused so 
much controversy as the Reformation. Catholic and Protes- 
tant writers naturally take opposite views. Catholic writers 
regard it as an apostasy from the true faith while Protes- 
tants maintain that it was only a return to the belief and prac- 
tice of primitive Christianity. The historian, however, has 
very little to do with this theological aspect of the question. 
His purpose is to investigate the historical narrative accounts 
of the Reformation, and after a careful investigation of writ- 
ten authorities to lay bare its causes and effects. 

We will consider, first of all, the causes of the Reformation, 
then its historical expansion and its effects in the most impor- 
tant countries. 

The causes of the Reformation may be divided into two 

289 



290 THE REFORM AVION 

great groups, religious and secular. Both of these groups 
ought to be separately considered. 

407, Religious Causes of the Reformation. — In viewing 
the Reformation as a whole, the fact that looms most promi- 
nently into view is that no less than one-fourth of the entire 
population of Europe left the Catholic faith. In some coun- 
tries like England, Scotland, Sweden, Denmark and the 
northern parts of Germany, the great majority of the popula- 
tion became Protestant; in other countries like Hungary and 
certain lesser German states, a part of the population became 
Protestant, the rest remaining Catholic. Purely political 
causes could scarcely account for this fact and there is evi- 
dence to show there w^ere also certain religious causes that 
partly explain why so many people, in some countries undei* 
no compulsion, abandoned the religion of their forefathers. 

408. Abuses and Scandals in the Church. — It is undeniable 
that at that time there were great abuses and scandals in the 
Church. Catholic historians who also believe that the holi- 
ness of the Catholic Church does not depend upon the sanctity 
of any individual member or group of members, have concur- 
red upon this point. The testimony of persons who were by 
no means among the ranks of reformers, the sermons of 
Savonarola, the heroic efforts of popes and councils to put 
down abuses, the results of investigations of apostolic vis- 
itors, and the denunciations of St. Vincent Ferrer and of 
others are all evidence in the same direction. In England 
also we find the same evidence; for example, the Archbishop 
of Canterbury in 141 5 severely denounced certain clerics for 
the worldliness of their lives. 

It is, however, easy to exaggerate the evil. In all times 
the Church councils have been wont to assume a critical atti- 
tude and the very efforts on the part of ecclesiastics to cor- 



m 



ART OF PRINTING 29 1 

rect abuses shows that the evil was not universal. Moreover, 
throughout Europe there were numbers of people eminent for 
their piety and sanctity. Even in Germany, the home of the 
Reformation, we come across the mystic brotherhoods or 
Friends of God, who, while leading a contemplative life tried 
to influence the world by their teaching and example. Be- 
sides these there were also saintly teachers like Gerson and 
St. Thomas a Kempis, whose presence also tended to neu- 
tralize the supposed gloomy wickedness of those times. We 
may safely conclude that even on the verge of Reformation 
there were not wanting teachers to guide and examples to 
edify. 

Yet there were certainly abuses, in certain localities, and 
the constant sight of recurring scandals does tend of its own 
nature to weaken the religious conviction and to bring the 
church into evil repute. 

409. The Art of Printing and the Reformation. — Aluch has 
been said regarding the dissemination by the art of printing 
of the knowledge of the sacred Scriptures. This supposed 
cause, however, is hardly commensurate with the magnitude 
of its effects. The art of printing only became known about 
fifty years before Luther's appearance, and it would take a 
considerable time to make the great mass of the people ac- 
quainted with the results of the new invention. Besides this, 
even during the middle ages the people were not cut off 
entirely from Biblical instruction. Not only were there 
manuscript copies of the Bible circulated among the people 
but for a small sum there could be procured what was called 
" The Poor ]\Ian's Bible." This consisted of a series of 
rough wood prints that tried to convey a knowledge of the 
Bible pictorially. In England especially one of the reasons 
why Biblical translations were opposed was that already there 
existed versions of the Bible in the vernacular. 



292 THE REFORMATION 

410. Secular Causes of the Reformation. — One of the 

causes of the Reformation was an economic one. A great 
number of Italian prelates were entrusted with benefices in 
Germany, France, and England. By this means large sums 
of money found their way out of the national coffers into 
other channels. In addition to this, grievous taxes were im- 
posed on many of the bishops who in their turn had to lean 
heavily on the lower clergy. The complaints of the English 
parliament under Henry III, as well as the protest of the Ger- 
man and French clergy, testify to the presence of this evil. 

411. Jealousy of the Clergy. — Then there was the jealousy 
entertained by secular magnates of the power and influence of 
ecclesiastical statesmen. In England this is illustrated by the 
ardent attack made upon the wealthy clergy by the nobles 
during the fourteenth century and later on under Henry VIII. 
by the antipathy shown by the English nobles to the landed 
influence of the great clerics ; in Germany again the wealth 
and jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical states had aroused the 
cupidity and envy of many of the secular rulers. 

412. The Undefined Jurisdiction of Church and State was 
another secular cause of the reformation. \\'e have seen 
that the Investiture question was only a part of this- 
great problem — which during the sixteenth century still 
demanded an urgent solution. Such details as appointment 
of Church ofiicials, marriages, wills, divorces — all these still 
presented difficulties and there was naturally a tendency on 
the part of the lay element to shake itself free from the 
activity of the spiritual authority. 

413. The Political Element Most Effective. — Finally, the 
religious element of discord in many nations found a powerful 
instrument of expression by allying itself with the element of 



LUTHER 293 

civil and political discord. Thus in Germany Protestantism 
allied itself with the element of discontent against imperial 
authority; in Geneva it allied itself with the democratic ele- 
ment for the overthrow of its princely rulers; in England, on 
the other hand, it formed under Thomas Cromwell's subtle 
policy an instrument for extending the royal authority. 

A careful examination of the whole course of the Reforma- 
tion with its interwoven web of religious and political causes 
will reveal the fact that the political element was the predomi- 
nant factor in giving to the Reformation its wide and sudden 
success. In countries like Spain, Italy, and France, where 
the religious element of the Reformation was almost exclu- 
sively predominant we find that the reforming movement 
either lead a languid existence or died out altogether. Cer- 
tainly the religious element played a very important and an 
essential part. But what gave fixity and continuity to the 
movement seems to have been the political element. 

414. Local Characteristics of the Reformation. — The 

Reformation throughout the different areas of its activity had 
no universal common characteristics. It assumed in each 
locality distinctly peculiar traits. We will, therefore, con- 
sider the Reformation, taking one by one the most important 
kingdoms in which it appeared. 

415. Luther in Germany. — The disturbing political and re- 
ligious forces in Germany found their exploding point in 
Martin Luther. He was born at Eisleben in Saxony (1483). 
After some schooling at Eisenach he went to the University of 
Erfurt. There he gave evidence of considerable talent and 
industry, but showed an extraordinary restlessness of mind. 
On leaving the university, he joined the Augustinian friars 
and during his stay amongst them studied deeply the Bible 
and the works of St. Augustine. He was especially interested 



294 THE REFORMATION 

in St. Augustine's doctrine of justification by faith. Placing 
his own interpretation upon that doctrine he said that St. 
Augustine taught that faith alone could justify. His doc- 
trines proceeded from the twofold meaning that can be given 
to the word " faith." Faith may mean merely the assent to 
some supernatural truth and it may also mean that firm persua- 
sion of the truth that can alone influence a man's practical life. 
Luther seems to have imagined that St. Augustine used the 
word " faith " in the former sense. 

416. Luther's Attack on Indulgencies. — Whatever may 
have been the private opinions of Luther at that period, what 
brought him first of all into public notice was his attack on 
the practice of granting of indulgences. An indulgence is 
the remission of the ancient canonical penance imposed by the 
Church in ancient times by way of satisfaction for certain 
sins. This remission could only be granted on certain condi- 
tions, and in later times one of these conditions was the giv- 
ing of money for pious purposes. It is easy to see that in 
degenerate times this practice might lead to abuses. And 
in Germany especially these abuses were of a very objectiona- 
ble character. No one could blame Luther for protesting as 
he did against these abuses. Nor did he exceed the limits 
when he' indignantly affixed ninety-five theses to the door of 
the church at Wittenberg. But some of these propositions 
attracted attention for their intemperate character and the 
violence that they did to the doctrinal notions of those times. 

417. Controversy Between Luther and Ecke. — The mani- 
festo at once brought into existence two hostile camps most 
bitterly opposed to each other. Some loudly applauded his 
act, others denounced the newness of his doctrines. In the 
year 15 19 at Leipzig, before a numerous and august assembly 
there took place a disputation between Luther and a certain 



DIET OF WORMS 295 

learned Dr. Ecke, each being surrounded by his own sup- 
porters. The discussion was long and quaint in its character. 
Some of the bystanders we are told fell to blows, others slept. 
On the whole, Dr. Ecke, a big man, gifted with a stentorian 
voice and a remarkable flow of words seems to have won the 
day. 

Dr. Ecke did nut let the matter drop but went in jierson 
to Rome and urged Pope Leo X to take urgent measures 
against the audacious reformer who had ncjw denounced not 
only the doctrine of indulgences but other Catholic doctrines 
as well. 

418. Luther Defies the Pope. — The result was the issue 
of a papal bull which condemned Luther's writings and or- 
dered his books to be burned. Luther who up till now had 
seemed submissive, if not obsequious to papal authority replied 
by defiance. He ])ub]icly separated himself from the Church 
and burned the p(,ipe's letter. The pope then urged the em- 
peror to take up tlie matter. Therefore in 1521 there took 
place the celebrated Diet at Worms. 

419. Diet of Worms. — Luther stood before the emperor, 
the electors, the bishops, the dukes, and the other dignitaries 
of the empire and was asked if he would retract his views. 
His answer was a defense of what he had upheld and an 
appeal to the Scriptures. The emj^eror then dismissed him 
as a heretic and shortly afterward jjlaced him under the ban 
of the empire. 

Luther. \\\\\\q drixing in a coach from the assembly was 
stopped by a band of armed men in a dark forest and was 
taken to a castle at Wartburg. This was a ruse on the part 
of his protector, the Elector of Saxony, in order to remove 
Luther from the violence of his enemies. It was during his 
retirement here that Luther wrote the translation of the Bible. 



PEASANTS' OUTBREAK 297 

From a literary point of view, tiiis was important. It did for 
the German language very much what the old English Bible 
has done for the English. It tended to lift the native tongue 
up to the level of a classic language, giving to it a peculiar 
simplicity and grandeur entirely its own. 

420. The Knights' War (1523). — The religious strife soon 
began to draw into its \ortex also the discontented political 
elements. The lesser knights in Germany were the only 
class excluded from partaking in the deliberations of the 
Diet. This they had always bitterh- resented. At length, 
their long discontent was excited into open warfare by some 
of the tenets of Luther which advocated the confiscation of 
Church property. Then their cupidity combined with their 
desire for power to urge them to action. The standard of 
revolt was raised by Franz Von Sickingen the owner of 
numerous castles along the Rhine. But Luther, whom they 
took to be their friend became their most jealous opponent. 
He upheld the cause of the upper princes and this opposition 
is important since it gave to the political aspect of the German 
Reformation an aristocratic character. 

421. The Peasants' Outbreak (1525). — The same policy 
characterized Luther's attitude on the occasion of the peasants' 
revolt. The peasants were then the most oppressed class in 
Germany. X'ot only were the burdens laid upcjn them by their 
feudal lords grievously heavy, but they were unable to make 
their economic condition correspond with the advance of the 
times. The other classes of society were rapidly advancing 
in wealth and comfort. But the caste system of feudalism 
kept them in their old condition and tied them helpless to 
the soil. Also the diversion of the old trade routes must for 
the time have occasioned considci"al)lc depression of trade. 
It was not long before the peasants seemed to find in Luther's 



298 THE REFORMATION 

writings a direct encouragement to revolt. But Luther dis- 
appointed them as he had disappointed the knights. He even 
urged the princes to crush the rebehion with fire and sword, 
and was regardless of the fact that some of their demands 
were copied word for word from his own writings. 

422. Edict of Spires (1526). — At the same time, the re- 
ligious strife began to assume a more geographical shape. 
At the Diet of Spires it was enacted that in each state the 
religion of the people should be decided by the will of their 
ruler. This edict was another barrier, if an}' such were 
needed, in the way of the formation of German unity. Re- 
ligion itself was now added to the numerous jealousies and 
petty strifes between state and state. 

423. Confession of Augsburg (1530) still further accentu- 
ated the discordant condition of affairs. The German Protes- 
tants drew up their formal confession of faith and soon after 
began to form th^ir mutual league against the Catholic states 
of Germany. For they soon perceived that they would have 
to uphold their contention by force. The league was called 
after the name of the place v^'here they met " The League of 
Schmalkalde." 

424. French Intervention (1552). — The League at Schmal- 
kalde and the war that afterwards broke out between the 
Catholic and Protestant forces of Germany began to affect 
even the foreign politics of Germany. Henry H was then 
reigning in France and to him the Protestant party under its 
able leader Maurice of Saxony appealed for support. Henry 
n consented but only at a heavy price. The cities of Metz, 
Toul, and Verdun in Lorraine were to be placed under the 
protection of the French. It was not long before the French 
king obtained a still firmer footing on German soil. The 



REFORM IN GENEVA 299 

protectorate became changed into a military occupation. 
From that time the French occupation of Lorraine has always 
been the cause of irritation between France and Germany and 
was not terminated even by the late Franco-German war. 

425. Religious Peace of Augsburg. — In 1555 the contend- 
ing religious ])arties agreed to a compromise called the Treaty 
of Augsburg. The main provisions of this treaty were, 
first, that each prince was to choose the religion for himself 
and his subjects; second, the Lutherans were to be tolerated 
and admitted in equal numbers with the Catholics to the Im- 
perial Chambers; thirdly, the Church property that had been 
secularized before 1552 was to remain so. 

This treaty formed the basis of religious life in Germany 
for the succeeding fifty years. It was not until 1618 that 
religious strife again began to break out in the Thirty Years' 
War. 

426. The Reformation in Geneva. — The Reformation in 
Germany was mainly indebted for its success to its aristocratic 
character. Not only was its system of government thor- 
oughly aristocratic but the political element in Germany with 
which it blended consisted of the princes and higher magnates. 
In Geneva, we behold the reforming movement under another 
aspect. It was democratic in its form and it blended with the 
democratic element of the community. 

Geneva, in the early part of the sixteenth century was 
subject to a triple jurisdiction. It had a municipal govern- 
ment of its own but was also subject to the bishop of Geneva 
and to the Duke of Savoy. A triangular duel seems fre- 
quently to have Ijeen the result. Just about this time, the 
bishop and the duke were trying to annex the city to the 
duchy of Savoy. Naturally the burghers resisted and it was 
also natural that the doctrines of the Reformation if they 



300 THE REFORMATION 

once found their way there would find in the independent 
burgher a very suitable soil for their development. 

427. John Calvin was the man who brought together the 
several elements of resistance. He was a native of Noyon 
in the south of France. He was a man of brilliant gifts, as 
well acquainted with the Scriptures as with the classics. He 
had also great powers of organization and he certainly had 
far more constructive ability than Luther. 

No doubt, his early studies must have been such as to bring 
out more fully the peculiar gifts of his mind. For he had not 
only undergone a theological training but had also been pre- 
paring himself for the practice of the law. 

While studying in Paris, he came in contact with the doc- 
trines of the reformers of Wittenberg. His mind was quickly 
lead away from the Church and he openly advocated the 
doctrines of Luther. But he was not by any means a mere 
receptive disciple. He elaborated a system of his own which 
he partly exposed in his " Institutes of the Christian Re- 
ligion." 

The fame of Calvin soon spread, and some of the reformers 
in Switzerland invited him to share in their labors. He ac- 
cepted their invitation and went to Geneva (1536). 

428. Calvin's Doctrine. — The doctrines of Calvin differed 
considerably from those of Luther. L^nlike Luther he re- 
jected transubstantiation altogether, that is to say, he main- 
tained that at the mass the bread and wine are just the 
same after as before the consecration. He also differed from 
Luther in regard to the doctrine of the development of pre- 
destination. But the free will as taught by Calvin is a self- 
contradiction since he maintained that some being predes- 
tined to damnation are consequently unable to do otherwise 
than commit sin. On the other hand, certain doctrines of 



CALVINISM 30 T 

Luther were accepted by Calvin but in a more exaggerated 
form. Thus it was maintained by Calvin that faith assures 
not only justification but also salvation. Calvin was also 
more thorough than Luther in the violence of his attacks on 
the Catholic Church and rejected altogether its festivals and 
ritualistic forms. 

429. Organization of Calvinism. — Second, the organization 

of the Church established by Calvin differed entirely from 
that of Luther's. \\'hile Luther placed all power in the hands 
of the princes, Calvin placed it in the hands of the people. 
The Church as foundecj by Calvin was essentially democratic 
in its origin and in its constitution. While, however, all 
])ower was supposed to be derived frcjm the people, the actual 
administration of government was confided to a permanent 
council called " The Consistorial Court of Discipline." 
This council consisted of both pastors and laymen, and it 
had supreme jurisdiction in all Church matters and general 
morals. 

Evidently a simple organization of this kind would only 
suit a small area like that of Geneva, and it was reserved for 
John Knox in Scotland to draw up a more elaborate Church 
organization. Tn his Constitution, not only was there a Gen- 
eral Assembly consisting of representatives froiu the local as- 
semblies but there was also a hierarchy of smaller councils 
such as provincial synods, presbyteries and Church sessions. 

430. Political Elements of Calvinism. — This strong demo- 
cratic character of the Calvinistic Church intensified any op- 
position that might be made l^y the people to the established 
government. Thus the Huguenots in France, the English 
Puritans under the Stuarts, the Scotch Presbyterians under 
Queen ^lary, and the Protestants of the northern Nether- 
lands, all as we shall see, derived a considerable support and 



302 THE REFORMATION 

incitement against the ruling government from the demo- 
cratic and unreserved nature of Calvin's doctrines. 

431. The Reformation in England. — The Reformation in 
England differed from the Reformation in Germany and 
Geneva in two important respects. First, the immediate ex- 
citing cause of the Reformation was not the attitude of the 
people hut the policy of the king and his ministers. Secondly, 
the change of faith in England w^as effected not in co-opera- 
tion with but in spite of the tendency of the great majority 
of the people. Nothing indeed is more conspicuous than the 
way in which the Catholics in England clung pertinaciously 
to their faith and yet on the other hand were seemingly over- 
whelmed by the force of circumstances. 

432. Henry VIII and His Divorces. — Henry VIII had, 
by a papal dispensation married Katharine of Aragon who 
had been the wife of his deceased brother Arthur. After 
seventeen years of married life Henry VIII began to have 
scruples as to the legality of this marriage. His eagerness 
for the dissolution of the tie between himself and Katharine 
was also increased by his ardent affection for Anne Boleyn, 
a maid of honor to the queen. Henry submitted the question 
to the pope, who appointed a commission to inquire into the 
case. The members composing the commission were Cardi- 
nal Wolsey, the king's minister, and Cardinal Campeggio the 
papal legate. But the commission purposely delayed the busi- 
ness. So at the advice of Archbishop Cranmer, Henry re- 
ferred the question to the universities of Europe. Their de- 
cision was prompt but unfavorable. Only Oxford and Cam- 
bridge pronounced in its favor. In the meantime the k'ng 
had grown angry at the wilful delays of the papal court and 
was disposed to lay the blame on Cardinal Wolsey. In spite 
of Wolsey's efforts to placate the king, he was dismissed 



THOMAS CROMWELL 303 

from office and soon after died wishing- " that he had served 
his God as faithfully as he had served his king." 

433. Thomas Cromwell. — A new minister now took the 
place of Wolsey. This was Thomas Cromwell and it was 
he who suggested to the king that series of decisive steps by 
which gradually the Reformation was introduced into Eng- 
land. 

The personality of Thomas Cromwell is interesting. He 
had led a roving and an adventurous life. His early years 
were spent in Italy where he engaged his services as a hired 
soldier. But his mind was of no common type. In the 
midst of his active occupations he found time to make him- 
self thoroughly acquainted with the dark and tortuous 
methods of Italian diplomacy, especially was he deeply versed 
in all the maxims of Machiavelli. After leaving Italy, he 
spent some time in Holland as a clerk. From Holland, he 
returned to England where he entered the service of Cardi- 
nal Wolsey. His experience of the men and manners of 
Europe, his thorough training in statecraft, all tended to 
cultivate to the utmost his matchless ingenuity of mind and 
•his utter ruthlessness of character. 

Such was the man who at this moment took his place at the 
helm of state. It was evident that no half-hearted measures 
could be expected from him. He boldly advised the king to 
sever all connection between England and Rome, to make his 
own royal self head of the Church in England and in that new 
capacity to dissolve the marriage with Katharine. 

434. Separation of England From Rome. — Henry followed 
his advice. By a succession of rapid strides England was 
severed from Rome. Henry set aside Katharine by his own 
royal authority and married Anne Boleyn. Finally contribu- 
tions to the papal treasury were cut off and no more appeals 



304 THE REFORMATION 

were to be made to Rome. Henry was declared Supreme 
Head of the Church in England (1534). All religious 
houses were suppressed and their temporalities handed over 
to laymen. Even the secular clergy were brought entirely 
under the control of the self-assumed spiritual power of the 
king, for none could preach without a license and even the 
licensed preachers were restricted in the topics of their ser- 
mons. 

Those who resisted this policy in any way were pitilessly 
destroyed. The very highest in the land received the fiercest 
blows. Thomas More, the favorite chancellor of the king, 
one of the highest representatives of the New Learning and 
eminent for his loyalty and piety, was asked to acknowledge 
the spiritual supremacy of the king. He refused and had to 
pay the penalty on the scaffold. Bishop Fisher of Rochester, 
illustrious alike for his learning and for his sanctity met with 
a similar fate. And with these perished many others con- 
victed of the new treason of denying the spiritual supremacy 
of the king. 

435- Pilgrimage of Grace. — But Englishmen (jn the whole 
were reluctant to accept the change. Especially in the north- 
ern parts of England they clung- obstinately to the faith of 
their fathers. An armed revolt was organized by the Cath- 
olic nobles, a revolt that went by the name of Pilgrimage of 
Grace (1536). At one time, the insurgents were so nu- 
merous and so well organized that the government was in 
imminent peril. But by a false promise they were induced to 
separate, and wholesale executions ruthlessly stamped out all 
traces of the movement. 

436. The Six Articles. — While England was thus being 
violently parted from the communion with the See of Rome 
both Henry and the majority of his subjects still held fast 



EDWARD VI 305 

to a great number of the old Catholic doctrines. In 1539 
was passed the act of " The Six Articles." By this act all 
were required to believe in, first, the Real Presence; secondly, 
Communion under one kind; thirdly, celibacy of the clergy; 
fourthly, the binding nature of vows of chastity; fifthly, the 
lawfulness of private masses, and sixthly, auricular confes- 
sion. 



437. Edward VI and the Reform Movement. — When 
Henry VIII died and Edward VI, his son, ascended the 
throne (1547) even the Catholic ele- 
ment tended to l^ecome eliminated. 
This was chiefly owing to the activ- 
ity of Archbishop Cranmer who had 
altogether left the Catholic faith, 
and to the active policy of the Earl 
of Warwick who was Protector of 
the kingdom on account of the king's 
minority. A Protestant catechism 
and a Protestant book of homilies 
were drawn up and their use ordered 
in all the churches. In 1552, were 
formulated forty-two articles of re- 
ligion, afterwards reduced to thirty- Qneen Mary, 
nine, and all the clerg}^men, church-wardens and schoolmaster.^ 
had to subscribe to these articles. 




438. Catholic Reaction Under Queen Mary. — W ith the ac- 
cession of the Catholic queen Mary (1553) there was a reac- 
tion in favor of Catholicism. Catholic worship was again 
restored, and in 1554 the two houses of Parliament resolved 
by a formal vote to return to the obedience of the Holy See. 
Cardinal Pole, who had been sent by the pope to receive the 
submission of the kingdom was solemnly received by the two 



3o6 THE REFORMATION 

Houses of Parliament and his words of absolution were re- 
ceived on bended knees (1554). 

439. Queen Elizabeth. — But this reaction lasted only as 
long as the reign of Queen Mary. When she died in 1558, 
Elizabeth, her sister, succeeded to the throne. Her own opin- 
ions were in favor of the reformed doctrines. This was 
clearly shown by her attitude even from the outset. As early 
as 1559 she gave permission for part of the Church service 
to be read in Latin, while in the same year there followed 
measures still more unmistakable in their character. The 
supremacy over things spiritual was restored to the crown. 
All payments of money to Rome were abolished and the 
book of Common Prayer as established by Edward VI was 
with certain alterations, restored and prescribed for general 
usage. 

So far the attitude of Elizabeth had been one of impartial- 
ity both to the new religion and the old. She was naturally 
indifferent in religious matters and her wish would have been 
to hold the balance evenly between the two reli'^ious parties. 
But political circumstances almost forced her hand. Mary, 
Queen of Scotland, who had married the Dauphin of France, 
openly claimed the English throne. Her claims were the 
more dangerous on account of the alliance between Scotland 
and Erance, and the possible sympathies of the Catholic party 
in England. Besides this political complication, while the 
Protestant party were urgent in demanding war upon Spain, 
the Catholics with the Duke of Norfolk at their head were 
as earnest in favor of a steady peace with that country. 

440. Elizabeth Completes the Separation of England From 

Rome. — The flight of Mary Queen of Scots from her re- 
bellious subjects into England, the conspiracies that were set 
on foot to raise her to the throne, her execution in 1587, and 



REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 



307 



the consequent invasion of England by the Spanish fleet — 
all combined with the anti-Catholic feeling throughout the 
country to change a negative attitude into one of a severe 
persecution of the Catholics. It was declared treason to in- 
troduce papal bulls into the realm; all magistrates and public 
officers had to subscribe to the articles of faith. Catholic 
laymen who refused to attend the Protestant service were 
punished by fines, and Catholic priests were imprisoned and 
sent to the gibbet. These 
severe measures pi-oduced 
their intended effect of 
weakening Catholicism in 
England. They also com- 
bined with the other causes 
already mentioned to create 
a tradition of hostility 
against Catholicism — a tra- 
dition which has lasted even 
down to our own times. 

The reign of Elizabeth 
may be said to have com- 
pleted the work of the Ref- 
ormation in England. The 
security of the throne, the 
safety of the country from 




Queen Elizabeth. 



internal conspiracy and from foreign invasion were things 
that seemed to be incompatible with Catholicism. At the 
same time Protestantism was firmly organizing itself in- 
wardly, and under succeeding reigns there gradually grew up 
the Anglican Church such as we see it at the present day. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

The Reformation defined — Its controversial aspects — Re- 
ligious causes of the Reformation — Abuses existing in the 
church — Danger of exaggerating the extent of these abuses — 



308 THE REFORMATION 

Printing of the Sacred Scriptures not a sufficient cause — Secular 
causes of the Reformation — Heavy taxes laid on the clergy — 
Jealousy entertained by lay rulers of the clerical influence and 
wealth — The political elements of discord in different nations. 
Reformation in Germany — Early career of Martin Luther — 
His attack on abuses connected with indulgences — Formation 
of two hostile parties — Leo X condemns Luther's doctrines — 
Diet of Worms — Luther's retirement in Saxony — The Knights' 
War — The Peasants' Revolt — Edict of Spiers — Confession of 
Augsburg — French Intervention — Religious Peace of Augs- 
burg — • Reformation in Geneva — Its political nature — Triple 
government in Geneva — Early career of Calvin — Calvin's ar- 
rival in Geneva and his activity there — Differen'^e between the 
doctrines of Luther and those of Calvin — Difference between 
the organization of the Lutherans and that of the Calvinists — 
Democratic organization of the Calvinists — Reformation in Eng- 
land — Conservatism of the English Catholics — Rise of the di- 
vorce question — Thomas Cromwell — Strong policy of Crom- 
vvell — Separation of England from the Catholic Church — Mar- 
tyrdom of Thomas More and of Cardinal Fisher — Resistance of 
the Catholic nobles in the North of England — the Six Articles 
-— Accession of Edward VI to the English throne — Further de- 
velopment of Protestantism — Catholic reaction under Queen 
Mary — Queen Elizabeth and her religious policy — Active per- 
secution of the Catholics brought about by political as well as 
religious causes — Execution of Mary Queen of Scots and the 
consequences thereof. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

KoSTLEN, Lutner; Ranke, Lives of the Popes; Seebohm, Protestant 
Revolution; Beard, Luther; Hausser, Period of the Reformation; Cam- 
bridge, Modern History; Fisher, Reformation; Alzog, Church History; 
Spalding, History of the Protestant Reformation ; Perry, Reformation in 
England; Froude, History of England; Gasquet, Eve of the Reformation ; 
Seebohm, Oxford reformers; Creighton, Age of Elisabeth; Blunt, 
Reformation of the Church in England; Gasquet, Henry VHI and the 
English Monasteries; Vogel, Bibliotheca biographica lutherana; C. Ulman, 
Reformatoren vor der Reformation; Martin Luther, Werke (Weimar) ; 
Merle d'Aubigne, Histoire de la Reformation en Europe au Temps de 
Calvin; Dufur, Le Catechisme de Calvin; Migne, Etablissenient de la 
Reforme religieuse a Geneve (Paris) ; John Foxe, History of Acts and 
monuments of the church. 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION 

441. Conditions Inside the Church. — Having considered 
the fortunes of those who separated themselves from the 
Cathohc Churcli we may now consider the important move- 
ments that were taking place inside the Cathohc Church. 
The sight of such numbers fallen away from the Church 
speedily convinced those who remained within the fold of 
the necessity of an urgent reform. It would not be fair, how^- 
ever, to attribute the cause of this reform to Protestantism 
alone. Some have done this and have therefore called the 
reform inside the Catholic Church the counter-reformation. 
But even before the triumph of Protestantism, there had been 
a reforming party inside the Church. The efforts of popes 
and councils and the protests of saints sufficiently testify to 
the presence of a reforming element inside the Church. Even 
as regards doctrine, there had existed inside the Church a 
liberal but orthodox party that in matters as yet undefined 
held freer opinions. 

But this reforming element inside the Church had not suc- 
ceeded in fully working out its way. It must be remembered 
that society in those times was only partially organized. 
Movements and agitations of any kind were slow to work 
their way. The Church also in its outward body reflected the 
character of the period. There were still remnants of feu- 
dalism in the Church, such for example, as the large estates 
held by the clergy. It required some strong upheaval, in 
fact, nothing short of a revolution to enable her to throw off 
the fetters and impediments of the medieval past. This 
partly explains the reason why the reform in the Catholic 

310 



REFORMING POPES 3II 

Church was subsequent to and not antecedent to the Protes- 
tant Reformation. 

It will help towards a clearer idea of the nature of this 
reform if we consider separately the various elements that 
composed it. There were the popes whose lives were now an 
example to Christendom, and there were the religious orders, 
many of which were now modernized in their spirit and in 
their work', there were the saints whose sanctity now as- 
sumes a type in conformity with modern times, and finally 
there was the important council of Trent that moulded into 
a definite and permanent shape the new materials of the 
outward body and seeming of the Church. 

442. The Popes. — Perhaps the first pope who represented 
the Reformation inside the Church was Paul IV (1555). 
In the beginning of his reign, he allow^ed his attention to be 
taken up with political interests, but he afterward devoted 
himself entirely to the interests of the Church. His rela- 
tions were removed from the Roman Curia and both by ex- 
ample and by monition he made the first steps in the direction 
of reform. 

443. Pius V (1566) was in many respects the most worthy 
and typical representative of the reforming rnovement. He 
drew^ a strong line of demarcation between the Catholic 
Church and other denominations, and at the same time he in- 
creased wMthin this narrower area the spiritual life of the 
Church. He renewed a crusade against the Turks. Under 
his auspices a league of the Spaniards and of the Venetians 
was formed against the Turks and in 1571 he was rew^arded 
by the victory of Lepanto. His bull by which he excommu- 
nicated heretics and all who should in any way favor the Sar- 
acens and the aid that he gave to the Catholic party in France 
and in the Netherlands were also a part of the same policy. 



312 



THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION 



Indeed, by the end of his reign, Pius V had succeeded in 
clearly delineating the frontiers of the Church, perhaps some- 
what to the exasperation of those who were on the outer side 
of the frontier. 

Of equal importance were his efforts in the direction of re- 
form. The main consideration that lead to his election had 
been the sanctity of his private life. His charity and humil- 
ity — not his political ability — lifted him to the papal throne. 
As pope, his public virtues were not less eminent. His zeal 

in putting down simony, his 
care for the education and 
spiritual character of aspir- 
ants to the priesthood made 
their beneficent results felt 
everywhere. It is also to 
Pope Pius V that we are 
mainly indebted for the 
Roman Breviary in its pres- 
ent form. Various other 
breviaries had been in use l)e- 
fore his time but he abroga- 
ted them and substituted in- 
stead the breviary in its pres- 
,, „„. ent form. 

Ciregory XIII. 




444. Gregory XIII, who succeeded Pius V in 1572 was 
also zealous for the good of the Church, but his zeal had even 
a more combative character than that of his predecessor. He 
was frequently engaged in disputes with Venice and other 
governments. The things for which he will be best remem- 
bered are the material improvements that characterized his 
pontificate. For example, there were the six colleges that he 
built at Rome, and the establishing and the endowment of col- 
leges in other towns of Italy. Then again, the name of 



RELIGIOUS ORDERS 313 

Pope Gregory XIII will always be associated with the Gre- 
gorian Calendar. Hitherto, the Julian Calendar, the one that 
was adjusted by Julius C?esar, had been in use. But this in 
course of time by the accumulation of small errors had be- 
come unserviceable. Gregory XIII introduced the new and 
present system of calculation and it was speedily adopted all 
over Christendom. 

445. Sixtus V (1585) was the last of the popes of this 
particular period. He was a man of extraordinary capacity 
and indefatigable energy. The magnificent halls in the 
Vatican library, the completion of the cupola of St. Peter's, 
the superb aqueduct called the " Aqua helici " and the well- 
known obelisk in front of St. Peter's were all his work. His 
interest in sacred learning was shown Iw his new edition of 
the Vulgate Bible. Xor was he forgetful of administrative 
concerns. He limited the number of cardinals to seventy 
and established fifteen congregations for the more efficient per- 
formance of the business of the Church. 

446. The New Religious Orders. — The influence exercised 
by the popes was rendered most efficacious by the founding 
of new religious orders. Some of these still had for their 
object the cultivation of the contemplative life, while others 
adapted themselves for work in their modern environment. 
One great feature of these modern orders was the absence of 
a strong line of demarcation between the religious man and 
the man of the world, such as we see in the older orders. In 
dress, in occupation, and in wideness of interests they tried 
to assimilate themselves more to the outer world. 

447. The Jesuits. — The most important of these orders 
was undoubtedly that of the Jesuits, founded in 1537 by St. 
Ignatius Loyola, St. Ignatius was at first an ofiicer in the 



314 THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION 

Spanish army. Receiving a wound on the field of battle, he 
was laid up for some weeks in the hospital. During that 
time he read the lives of the saints. The eternal truths made 
such an impression upon his mind that he determined to for- 
sake the world and devote himself entirely to the promotion of 
the glory of God. 

The general principles that seemed to have guided him 
in the construction of his order were the defense of the Holy 



_See, the destruction of religious error, and the mental and 
religious welfare of humanity. 

448. Jesuit Training. — The means adopted were the for- 
mation of a large body of men united together under one 
supreme head by (a) the tie of strictest military obedience; 
(b) the taking of a fourth vow, promising to go as mission- 
aries to any part of the world to which the pope might send 
them; (c) a long course of mental and spiritual training. 
This consisted of two years novitiate spent not in study but in 
the practice of humility and of the other virtues. At the 
end of the two years they were to undergo a course of five 
years' study, after which the subjects were to teach in the 
schools of the order for five or six years. At the end of this 
time those who were to become priests had to go through a 
course of four years' theology. Even their years of study 
were accompanied by frequent daily exercises of piety, such as 
meditation and examination of the conscience. 

It was evident that a large body of men carefully selected 
so thoroughly trained in every way and so tied down by obe- 
dience to their immediate superior and to the pope must have 
been a most formidable fighting contingent in the ranks of 
the Church. In a few years' time branches of the order -were 
to be found in every part of Europe and the whole of this for- 
midable organization was completely at the disposal of the 
Pope. 



RELIGIOUS ORDERS 315 

449. Jesuit Influence. — The chief spheres of their activity 
in Europe were the confessional and the professor's chair. 
Through these avenues they reached every class of society, 
the highest as well as the lowest. Hitherto the confessors of 
kings had been chiefly the mendicant friars. But now they 
were the Jesuits, typical of whom was the celebrated Pere 
le Chaise, confessor to Louis XIV. Their colleges and 
schools became renowned throughout Europe for learning and 
strictness of discipline. 

450. Jesuit Missionaries. — The missionary labors of the 
Jesuits were also of importance. St. Francis Xavier, a dis- 
tinguished member of the order, labored in the East Indies 
and southern India. In Japan, the Jesuit fathers prepared 
the way for those to come after. In China according to the 
testimony of one who was for years British consul at Pekin, 
they met with conspicuous success. Finally in Paraguay, 
out of the converted Indians they built up a well organized 
state, a state where all dwelt in peace and harmon}-, where 
none paid taxes and all lived upon the product of the common 
labor. 

Besides the Jesuits, other modern orders were founded 
about this time, orders, which being still in existence deserve 
some mention. Some of the more important of these are 
described in the following paragraphs. 

451. The Theatines. — This order was founded by Paul 
IV. Its main purpose was to correct the abuses of the clergy 
by setting an example of every priestly virtue. One work 
of charity in particular supposed to be peculiarly their prov- 
ince, was the preparing for death of those doomed to capital 
punishment. Numerous houses of the order flourished in 
different countries, but now the order is to be found only in 
Italy. 



3l6 THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION 

452. The Oratorians. — This was a congregation founded 
by St. Philip Neri (1515-1595). It was not an order in the 
strict sense of the word, since no rehgious vows were taken. 

Its primary object was to meet the wants of those who 
while shrinking from the burdens oi the religious life still 
wished to enjoy some of the assistance that it afforded. Its 
practical daily work was chiefly the instruction of the people. 
But the members of the order themselves soon became known 
for their deep and scholarly learning. 

453. The Barnabites. — The full title of this congregation 
is " Regular clerks of the Congregation of St. Paul." They 
are however, populajdy styled Barnabites from the church of 
St. Barnabas in Milan where the first members of the congre- 
gation used to assemble and pray in common. At the present 
day the Barnabites are strong in the north of Italy and main- 
tain their reputation for learning and scientific research. 

It will be seen from the account of the work done by the 
orders and congregations that they were very practical and 
modern in their spirit and in their work. Their members 
mixed freely with the world. And while, on the one hand, 
the note of extreme asceticism seems to be wanting, there 
is a greater cultivation of the more common and human vir- 
tues of daily life. The medieval world had a type of sanctity 
of its own and so has the modern. 

454. Saints of the Sixteenth Century. — We find this illus- 
trated also in the saints that flourished about the sixteenth 
century. St. Charles Borromeo (1564), whose picture at 
the present day is to be found in every part of northern Italy, 
so undying is the memory of his zeal, charity, and utter devo- 
tion to his people. St. Francis de Sales (1567), celebrated 
for his charity and kindness, St. Philip Neri, called from his 
zeal the Apostle of Rome, who when complaints were made to 



COUNCIL OF Th'HiXT 317 

him of certain noisy boys replied that they might break fag'- 
gots on his back so long as they did not commit sin. In these 
as in so many other saints there is something essentially mod- 
ern. While not loing sight in any way of the practice of 
the highest snpernatural \irtue. they seem placed more in 
touch with our own every day life. 

455. The Council of Trent (1545-1563). — One very im- 
portant factor in the Catholic Reformation was the holding 
of the Council of Trent. Indi\idual ])opes with their su- 
preme jurisdiction might accomplish much in the way of re- 
form, but it was desirable that the bishops of all the dioceses 
far and near should meet together and all agree on some 
common plan of operation. 

For a long while, the German emperors had been pressing 
upon the popes the need of holding a general council. But 
there were difficulties in the way. To hold the council on 
German soil would be giving rise to the same disorders that 
had attended certain other councils like those of Constance 
and Basel. Indeed, owing to the influence of Protestantism 
there would be still greater danger of disaffection toward the 
sovereign jurisdiction of the pope. Yet to hold the council 
on Italian ground might make the Germans fearful of local 
influences. This difficulty, however, was finally surmounted 
b}' the council being held at Trent which was on neutral 
ground. The council with various intermissions lasted about 
eighteen years. It was presided over in succession by Paul 
III, Julius III, and Pius IV. 

The importance of the council is seen from the fact that 
it dealt with a wider range of subjects than any other coun- 
cil, that it set forth in definite form the doctrines that had so 
far been defined or universally held by the Church, and that 
it reduced to a permanent system the reforming movement 
inside the Church. 



3l8 THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION 

The proceedings of the Council may be classed under two 
general heads. First, those that concerned the doctrines; 
secondly, those that concerned the discipline of the Church. 

456. The Doctrinal Decrees of the Council. — It first of all 
very carefully defined the sources of authority in matters of 
faith. Luther and his followers had asserted that the Scrip- 
tures alone are the depository of sacred revealed truth. The 
council, against this, declared that the living tradition of the 
Church is also a depository of revealed religion. After this, 
the council went on to define the doctrines of the seven sacra- 
ments, especially of the Holy Eucharist. Also the doctrines 
concerning Purgatory, Indulgences, Veneration of Saints 
and Images were clearly laid down. 

What seemed to have caused the greatest discussion was 
the question of the supremacy of the pope and the question 
whether the bishops ruled by divine right or only by the author- 
ity of the Holy See. After many heated arguments on both 
sides, the council admitted .that the power of the episcopal or- 
der is conferred at the very moment of consecration, but that 
jurisdiction over any particular diocese can be exercised only 
by papal authority. This view is set forth in a condensed 
form in the heading of the pastoral letter issued by Catholic 
bishops: "By the Grace of God and of the Apostolic See." 

457. The Decrees of the Council Regarding the Discipline 
of the Church. — An earnest endeavor was made to do away 
with the evils that had been partly the cause of the Protestant 
secession — such abuses, for example, as the corrupt practice 
of granting indulgences, the non-residence of bishops and of 
other pastors, the holding of benefices by laymen, and the in- 
discriminate granting of dispensations. The disciplinary re- 
form had also a positive aspect. Salutary decrees were 
passed for the mental and spiritual betterment of the general 



SUMMARY AND REFERENCE 319 

mass of the clergy. None but the fit were to be ordained, 
seminaries for the training of priests were to be erected in all 
the dioceses, and periodical provincial councils and espicopal 
synods were to be held. Also, minute regulations were laid 
down in order to secure that the cleric by his general deport- 
ment and by his every act might edify the faithful. 

The termination of the Council of Trent saw also the com- 
pletion of the work of the counter-reformation. The Church 
had successfully passed through the dangerous region separat- 
ing medie\'al from modern times. Her identity and con- 
tinuity of existence were still preserved and she rose from the 
bitterness of preceding years with renewed virtue and spirit- 
ual might. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

'I'rue causes of the reform inside the Catholic Church — Causes 
of the slowness of this reform — The various elements of this re- 
form — The Popes — Pius IV — Pius \' — His spiritual zeal and 
activity — The example of his virtues — Gregory XIII and the 
material improvements effected by him — Sixtus V — His activ- 
ity m temporal and spiritual things — New religious orders — 
Difference between these and the older orders — Foundation of 
the Jesuit Order — Its principles and constitution — Efficiency of 
the order — Influence in the chair and in the confessional — St. 
Francis Xavier and Jesuit missionary work — The Theatines — 
The Oratorians — The Barnabites — Modern saints and their 
peculiar spirit — ^ The Council of Trent — Reason for its delay — 
Im|)()rtance of the Council — Its doctrinal decrees — Its dis- 
ciphnarv decrees. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Symonds, Caflwlic Reaction; Pastor, History of the Popes; Ward, 
Counter Reformation; Hughes, Loyola; Cambridge, Modern History; 
Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Bartoli, History of the Order of 
the Jesuits; Capecelatro, Life of St. Philip Neri; Catechism of the 
Council of Trent ; Villari, Life of Savonarola (Edited by J. Peacock) ; 
Theiner, Acta genuina SS oecumenic Cone. Trent; Muller, das Con- 
claves Pius IV; Calona, Vita del Pio V ; Henrien, Hist, des Ordres 
religieux; Hefele, Life of St. Theresa; Sylvani, History of St. Charles 



3-^ TJIR CATHOIJC REFORM. \TION 

Bonomco; Consalvi, Acta Antiquissima Ignatii, History Soc. Jesu by 
Orlandino and others; Henrien, General history of Catholic Missions of 
the 14th century; Crasset, History of church of Japan (Paris). 



CHAPTER XXII 

THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 

458. Philip II. — Of all the lay champions of the Reforma- 
tion inside the Catholic Church, the foremost was perhaps 
Philip of Spain. 

The weariness of strife had induced Charles V to retire 
from all cares of government. To his son Philip he resigned 
Spain, the Netherlands and the Italian provinces, and for his 
brother Ferdinand he succeeded in procuring the election to 
the empire and thus the leadership of Germany. 

Philip II w^as now one of the most powerful sovereigns in 
Europe. \Miile his cousin Ferdinand of Germany enjoyed the 
shadowy dignity of the Holy Roman Empire, he controlled a 
real empire whose extent comprised not only the countries 
already mentioned but also the New World wath all its treas- 
ures of bullion and commerce. Spain was now the prepon- 
derating powder of Europe and the character of its ruler be- 
came therefore a matter of supreme importance. 

The personal appearance of Philip II was not calculated to 
inspire awe. His dwarfish stature, his bent legs, his nervous 
and embarrassed manner quite explain his reluctance to ap- 
pear much in public. Also, unlike Charles V, his accomplish- 
ments were few-. Spanish was the only language that he 
spoke with ease, and his interests were extremely narrow. 
There was, however, one thing that he could do well and that 
was the ordinary routine business of daily government. His 
mind was rather like that of a foreman in a business store. He 
delighted in details, and he himself insisted on performing 
all the business that in the United States is performed by the 
departments of war, education, agriculture, commerce, and 

321 



322 lllE REVOLT Of THE NETHERLASDS 

finance. With regard to wide problems of statecraft he was 
capable of pursuing safely the policy of centralization begun 
bv his predecessors, but when he initiated any line of policy of 
his own, he was signally unsuccessful. 

459. Centralizing Policy of Philip. — He continued the work 
of liis predecessor in establishing the supremacy of the roval 

authority in his own Span- 
ish dominions. Already 
the representative govern- 
ment and the power of the 
people had been reduced by 
policy of Charles V to a 
mere formality. In Ara- 
gon, Philip now began a 
similar policy and with suc- 
cess. The Cortes retained 
only a shadow of their for- 
mer power and the courts 
of law were entirely at the 
disposal and mercy of the 
king. 

Besides this success, 
Philip also succeeded in 
temporarily annexing Portu- 
gal to his possessions and in strengthening the royal author- 
ity in his Italian provinces. 




Philip II. Born at Valladolid 1527; died 
at the Escorial 1598. 



460. Philip's Intervention in the Netherlands. — But there 
was just one place in his dominions where his policy suffered 
a complete shipwreck, and that was the Netherlands. His at- 
tempt to crush the provinical liberties of the Netherlands not 
only met with determined and unexpected opposition but had 
the effect of making the Netherlands for about thirty years 



WAR IN THE NETHERLANDS 323 

the principal stage of European politics on which he played 
a losing part. It was there that the physical contestant forces 
of the "Protestants and Catholics met in combat and it was 
there that was mainly fought the question of Spanish prepon- 
derance in Europe. 

461. The Netherlands. — In order to understand, however, 
the meaning of the struggle and its influence on the future 
map of Europe it is important to form some idea of what then 
was meant by the Netherlands. 

During the middle ages the Netherlands included what is 
now Belgium and Holland. In the i6th century the whole 
of this territory passed into the hands of the Dukes of Bur- 
gundy. Later on, by the marriage of Maximilian with Mary 
of Burgundy it passed into the hands of the House of Austria. 
Charles then made another change by transferring the seven- 
teen provinces of the Netherlands to the immediate jurisdic- 
tion of Spain. 

One very important feature in the Netherlands was the 
difference between the northern and the southern provinces. 
This difference was one of religion and of race. The in- 
habitants of the northern Provinces were mainly Protestants 
and of German descent; the inhabitants of the southern 
Provinces were chiefly Catholics, and of French descent. 
This difference between the North and the South gradually 
shaped the whole course of the w^ar between Philip and the 
Netherlands and ended by the northern Provinces l^econi- 
ing what is now Holland, and the southern Provinces 
becoming what is now Belgium. 

462. The Causes of the War between the Netherlands and 
Spain was the policy of Philip who tried to crush the local 
liberties of the different provinces in the Netherlands and to 
substitute instead his own royal authority. He tried to effect 



324 THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 

this in two ways. First, by establishing a central govern- 
ment entirely under his control. The native nobles, much to 
their chargin. were excluded from it. Margaret of Parma, 
his half-sister, who had not much independence of character, 
was made governor in 1559. With her were associated a 
triumvirate of the following ministers : Cardinal Granvella, 
Barleymont, a noble, and Viglius a lawyer. Cardinal Gran- 
vella was an accomplished man, acquainted with seven lan- 
guages, a distinguished orator, ready-witted and a most adroit 
courtier. Barleymont was by Catholics esteemed loyal and 
honorable but by Protestants accounted as greedy and avari- 
cious. Viglius the lawyer does not seem to have had much 
influence in the more important transactions of business. 

The second means by which Philip tried to establish his au- 
thority was by procuring a bull from Pope Paul IV doing 
away with the four ancient episcopal sees and creating in 
their place fourteen new bishoprics and three archbishoprics. 
These new sees were filled with pro-Spanish bishops who 
could thus facilitate Philip's idea of making the Netherlands 
completely Spanish. 

463. Opposition to Philip's Plans. — Philip's schemes how- 
ever, roused a tempest of opposition. At the head of the 
resisting elements were the nobles whom Philip's government 
had supplanted. Three names stand out conspicuously in the 
list of these partiots — William of Orange. Count Egmont. 
and Admiral Horn. W^illiam of Orange was descended from 
the Counts of Nassau on the Rhine. He was at first brought 
up in the doctrines of Protestantism, but on entering the serv- 
ice of Charles V, he became a Catholic. On the death of 
Charles V, he became a Calvinist. He was a man of ability, 
and his political skill, his great caution and military sagacity 
made him the first leader of the opposition. Count Egmont 
was wealthy and noble, but the splendor of his military qual- 



DUKE OF ALVA 



325 



ities was set off by his vacillating incompetence as a states- 
man. Admiral Horn was High Admiral of the United 
Provinces. 

The opposition at first contented itself with constitutional 
protests. It secured the removal of Cardinal Granvella and 
tried to show Philip the dangers of the situation he was creat- 
ing. 

464. The Compromise. — 

Philip, however, still per- 
sisted in his policy, and a 
league called " llie Com- 
promise " was formed, the 
non-sectarian attitude of the 
movement being shown by 
the fact that it was joined 
also by the Catholics. Un- 
fortunately this purely polit- 
ical aspect of affairs was 
((uickly altered by the vio- 
lence of the Calvinists. 
Filled with rage and blind 
fury they demolished 
churches and convents and 
even partly defaced the magnificent Cathedral at Antwerp. 
Thus even in this early stage of the struggle the opposition 
was weakened bv intestine strife. 



ii^ 








'PJWi 


\'-.Cv%? .--i •■' ' ' ' ■■) 








^■■:^<-~ 


J»'r- 





William 



the Silent, Prince of 
Born 1535; died 1584. 



Orange. 



465. The Duke of Alva. — At this juncture, the Duke of 
Alva was sent by Philip (1567) to crush the insurrection. 
Alva was already a distinguished general, noted for his strict 
discipline and strategic skill. 

The policy of Alva in regard to the Netherlanders mav be 
summed up in this one word " Force." He instituted a judi- 



326 THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 

cial council of twelve judges called " The Council of Blood " 
which indulged in wholesale executions. He imprisoned and 
executed Egmont and Horn. W'iliiam of Orange also would 
have shared the same fate but he prudently fled. Such se- 
verity was fjuickly followed by its own punishment. Public 
opinion of the Protestant Powers began to be aroused and 
their soldiers were soon to appear du the battle flelds of the 
Netherlands. 

466. The Commercial Policy of Alva was followed by still 
more disastrous consequences. For the free right of self- 
taxation which the Netherlanders had previously enjoyed, he 
imposed a tax of one per cent, on all property, of five per cent, 
on the transfer of all real property, of ten per cent, on the 
transfer of all movable property. Commerce was thus bound 
hand and foot. A house or any article of merchandise on 
being sold a certain number of times would soon be mulcted 
to the extent of its full value. 

467. The Failure of Alva's Policy soon became apparent. 
William of Orange aided by his brother Louis, placed him- 
self at the head of French and German Protestant merce- 
naries and speedily began to accomplish the decline of Spanish 
power. It is true that the mercenaries were ill-trained and ill- 
equipped in comparison with the Spanish soldiers, but Wil- 
liam compensated for this lack by his consummate abilities as a 
statesman. Moreover, he had on his side the Dutch mer- 
chants so irritated by Alva's exactions. 

468. Requesens. — In 1573 Alva was recalled from the 
Netherlands and his place was taken by Don Luis de Re- 
quesens an able soldier and a man of moderate courses. The 
chief incident of his administration was the mutinous conduct 
of the Spanish troops who maddened with fury by their long 



NEW LEADERS ' 327 

arrears of pay broke loose from all restraint and with every 
circumstance of cruelty sacked and pillaged the city of Ant- 
werp. This conduct had the effect of temporarily submerging 
the religious differences of the Netherlanders. Both Cath- 
olics and Protestants now united together against the op- 
pressor and formed a league called " The Pacification of 
Ghent." 

469. Don John x)f Austria, — In 1577, the place of Don 
Requesens was taken by Philip's half-brother Don John of 
Austria. He had already displayed the skill of an able gen- 
eral at the battle of Lepanto against the Turks, but was lack- 
ing in statesmanship. He w^as also disposed to conciliatory 
measures, and partly won over the southern Provinces to 
Spanish influences. 

470. Alexander Farnese. — In 1578 his place was taken by 
Alexander Farnese, nephew of Don John and Duke of 
Parma and Piacenza in Italy. He successfully pursued the 
same policy as his predecessor but in a more conscious and 
more thorough way. He saw that it was now useless to try 
to retain the northern Provinces, but that there was every 
chance of gaining the southern Provinces by appealing to their 
religion. William of Orange had already drawn similar con- 
clusions regarding the northern Provinces. 

471. Treaty of the Union. — There was, therefore, noth- 
ing more left to fight about. In 1579, the Treaty of Union 
was signed at Utrecht. This treaty recognized the union of 
the seven northern Provinces with power of dictating war and 
peace and levying their own taxes. At first Philip's over- 
lordship was recognized, but in 1581 even this was formally 
done away with. The United Provinces of the north then 
became a confederate Republic and had a constitution some- 



028 1HE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 

what resembling that of the United States. Its Council of 
State containing- the federal element, corresponded to our 
Senate, while its States' General w-as like our House of Rep- 
resentatives in upholding the local elements of the constitution. 
Even the central hgurehead was not wanting and the House 
of Nassau maintained a loose kind of military presidency. But 
the constitution was always in a very indetermined condition 
and disputes were often rising between the federal and sepa- 
ratist elements. 

While the northern Provinces thus worked out their own 
destiny, the southern Provinces remained Spanish and were 
known by the name of Spanish Netherlands. From Spain 
they passed successively into the hands of Austria, France, 
and Holland, until by a continental treaty it was constituted 
by the powers of Europe the present independent kingdom of 
Belgium. 



^fe' 



472. Elizabeth's Attitude Towards the Netherlands. — Dur- 
ing the revolt of the Netherlands, the Reformation under 
Elizabeth was slowly making its way in England. The sever- 
ities of Alva cjuickly roused the ire of the English Protestants 
and a loud outcry was roused for an active war upon Spain. 
Elizabeth, however, held back. Her desire was to keep neu- 
tral if possible, and thus hold in her hands the balance of 
power. But the feeling of the nation was strong and she was 
forced to enter the struggle. An army of eight thousand men 
was sent to help the Protestants in the Netherlands, doles of 
money were sent to the Prince of Orange, while English priv- 
ateers harassed the Spanish shipping. The immediate effects 
of the hostility were not apparent but there rose a strong feel- 
ing of resentment in Spain, which began to regard England 
as its deadliest foe, 

473. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots.— In 1586 the 
execution of Alary Queen of Scots left Philip the nearest 



THE SPANISH ARMADA 329 

Catholic heir to the English throne, and this combined with 
unfriendliness in the past persuaded him that a blow must 
now be struck at England. The defeat of England meant 
in his eyes the triumph of Catholicism and indirectly the con- 
quest of the Netherlands and security of Spanish trade. He 
prepared therefore a great fleet with which to invade England. 
It was the most critical venture of his whole reign. On the 
success of this practically depended the supremacy or the down- 
fall of Spain. 

474. The Spanish Armada set sail in 1588. In numbers 
and in tonnage taken together it was nearly double the 
strength of the English fleet. But it was badly handled, and 
English gallantry combined with unusual storms effected its 
complete destruction. England had thus become the instru- 
ment of breaking the power of Spain. From now England 
assumes the task which has ever since been hers — the task of 
maintaining the balance of power in Europe and of checking 
any nation that threatened by its preponderance to destroy 
that balance. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Philip of Spain — Extent of his power — His character and 
accomplishments — His policy of centralization — Meaning of 
Netherlands — Division between the Northern and Southern 
Netherlands — Philip tries to crush the local liberties of the Neth- 
erlands — The Triumvirate — Opposition of Philip's schemes — 
The Compromise — Policy of the Duke of Alva — The Council 
of Blood — Failure of Alva's policy — Don Requesnes — Don 
John of Austria — Alexander Farnese — Treaty of Union — 
England's intervention in the war in the Netherlands — Spain 
declares war on England — Invasion of the Spanish Armada. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Block, A History of flu- People of l/ie Xetherluinis: Johnson, Europe 
in the Sixteenth Century: Ahni-KV, Ihtleli Republic and United Xetlier- 
hnids: Hariuson, W'iUuim the Silent; IIl'me, Philip H; Young. Hislorv 



330 THE REJ-QLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 

of the Netherlands; Stirling, Don John of Austria; Creighton, Queen 
Elizabeth; Payne, Voyages of Elizabethan seamen; Froude, Spanish story 
of the Armada; Beazley, Queen Elizabeth; Hinds, England of Elizabeth; 
CoRBETT, Drake and the Tudor Navy; Gachard, Correspondence of Philip 
//; Stevenson, Calendar of State Papers of Elizabeth's reign; Cabrera 
DE Cordoba, Historia de Filip //; Weiss, Papiers de Cardinal de Gran- 
velle ; Lettenhove, Relations politiqucs du Pays Bas; Juste, de la Revo- 
lution des Pays Bas sous Philip //. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



THE THIRTY YEARS WAR 



475. Causes of the Thirty Years' War. — Though peace 
had indeed been made between Spain and the Netherlands, 
war still continued between the two creeds. But the scene 
of warfare was now to 1)e in (Germany. Here again was to be 
fought out the great quarrel between Protestants and Cath- 
olics and for the next tliirt}' years Germany became the 
storm center of all the disturbing forces of Europe. 

The causes of the Thirty Years' War are mainly to be 
found in the defective nature of the religious treaty of Augs- 
burg. No provision therein had been made for future prog- 
ress. The government in each state was empowered to dic- 
tate what should be the religion of that state. But no deed 
on parchment can stay the march of facts. Princes Catholic 
or Protestant might lay down regulations but populations 
would steadily grow' Protestant or Catholic in spite of the 
regulations. 

476. Strife for Dioceses. — Moreover, there was one point 
hotly disputed at the time of the treaty, which had never been 
even verbally settled. Catholics had insisted that if any Cath- 
olic prelate embraced the reformed faith he should resign the 
temporalities attached to his office. The Protestants, how- 
ever, protested against this and their protest together with 
the Catholic claim was insisted on in the treaty. To our 
modern minds, the claim of the Catholic party seems reason- 
able enough but in those times the idea seems to have pre- 
vailed that the prince might make the faith of those who were 
his subjects. Naturally, this war of ideas became very acute 

331 



332 Tim rniRTv ye.irs' jj'. ir 

when bishops of important dioceses like Cologne left the Cath- 
olic faith. 

Even if the Treaty of Augsburg- had been clear and 
definite on all the issues it could only have put an end to 
physical hostilities. As soon as hostilities were over, the con- 
flict was waged in the field of diplomacy and of proselytism. 
There was a keen competition between the two creeds espe- 
cially for the bishoprics of Westphalia and Cologne, which 
were already wavering. Finally the struggle between the two 
parties over the duchies of Cleves and Julich, nearly precipi- 
tated hostilities. 

The Lutheran claimant, Sigismund of Brandenburg, ap- 
pealed to the Protestant party, and William, Duke of Neu- 
berg, to the Catholic party. Even Spain and Holland were 
nearly being in\'olved. However, the war cloud blew over 
and the peace of Xanten was signed by which Neuberg ob- 
tained Julich, while Brandenburg secured possession of Cleves. 

477. The Gregorian Calendar. — Another element that 
tended to intensify animosity between the two parties was the 
introduction of the Gregorian Calendar. The Catholics were 
naturally the first to welcome its appearance but the Protes- 
tants were reluctant to adopt it. Hence the holidays and 
feast days as they came round only added more material for 
strife and hatred. 

What more than anything else lead up to the Thirty Years' 
War was the attempt on the part of the Catholics to hold a 
religious procession in the streets of Donnau worth, a Protes- 
tant city. A tumult was raised and blood flowed. The town 
close to the dominion of Maximilian of Bavaria, was not un- 
der his jurisdiction, but the Catholics appealed to him for 
support. Maximilian both from zeal and interest was glad to 
interfere. His troops marched into the city which was ac- 
cordingly annexed to his own duchy of Bavaria. Both the 



BOHEMIAN PERIOD 333 

Catholics and Protestants thereupon organized for war. The 
Protestants were induced by Christian of Anhalt to form a 
league and the Catholics on their side also formed a league 
under Maximilian of Bavaria. 

478. Disputed Succession to the Empire. — Shortly after 
this, a disputed succession to the empire widened the strife and 
gave to it a national character of the most serious importance. 
The Emperor Mathias died in 161 9. The electors, of whom 
the majority were Catholics, elected in his place Ferdinand 
II. a zealous Catholic brought up in a Jesuit college. But 
Bohemia being a stronghold of Protestantism bitterly pro- 
tested, and chose as its ruler, Frederick, the Elector Palatine, 
an ardent Protestant and head of the Protestant union. 

War now became inevitable, and during the next thirty 
years most of the European nations one after the other, were 
dragged into the vortex of strife. 

In order to facilitate the memory as well as to render more 
clear the relative importance of the different phases of the w^ar, 
we will divide it into periods labelled by the names of the 
different nations that took part in the struggle. 

THE BOHEMIAN PERIOD (1618-1623). 

479. Battle of the White Hill. — Frederick the Elector 
Palatine himself appeared in Bohemia in order to enforce his 
claims. Everybody was charmed by the gracefulness of his 
appearance, and his fair and slender form. But the Jesuits 
rightly prophesied that his career would be short, and chris- 
tened him the " winter king." A decisive battle took place on 
the White Hill near Prague (1670). Shouting out their 
battle cry of " Holy Mary " the Catholic soldiers rushed im- 
petuously forward and completed routed their antagonists. 
Not only were Frederick's dreams of aggrandizement rudely 
dispelled but he was even driven out of his own domains. The 



334 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 

Spainards who were Catholics and ruled by a Hapsburger 
now eagerly took part in the struggle. They invaded the 
Palatinate and the electoral vote was taken away from Fred- 
erick and was given to Maximilian of Bavaria. 

480. Results of the Bohemian Campaign. — The important 
net results of the Bohemian campaign were the hrm establish- 
ment of the rule of Ferdinand in Bohemia, the Catholic con- 
quest of the Palatine and especially the addition of the Protes- 
tant electorial vote of the Palatine and the creation of a new 
electorate for the benefit of Catholic Bavaria. 

The cause of Ferdinand, the champion of Catholicism, had 
triumphed. But this very triumph brought its own dangers. 
France began to get alarmed at the rising power of the Span- 
ish-Austrian House, and in the minds of the Protestant princes 
of Europe, the motives of religious zeal began to excite into 
action any personal motives that they might have had for in- 
terference. 

481. Foreign Intervention. — The Protestant power most 
deeply interested in the fate of the Elector Palatine was Eng- 
land, for James I then king was father-in-law to the Elec- 
tor. But James, who had the ambition without the ability of 
Elizabeth, wished to stand aloof and hold the balance of power 
between European politics. All that he tried to do was to 
mediate with the King of Spain in behalf of the unfortunate 
Frederick. 

The next Protestant power whose immediate interests were 
most at stake was Denmark. The bishoprics of Bremen and 
Verden in north Germany were in the possession of the son of 
the King of Denmark. Any further Catholic success might 
imperil the safety of these bishoprics. Accordingly, Chris- 
tian IV of Denmark was persuaded to intervene and with this 
intervention begins the next period of the war. 



DEFEAT OF DENMARK 335 

THE DENMARKIAN PERIOD (1625-1629). 

482. Wallenstein Appears. — King Christian himself headed 
the Danish forces and invaded Germany. In onr times, this 
new element in the struggle would not seem of much impor- 
tance but in those days Denmark was a powerful kingdom 
and included within its territory the present kingdom of Nor- 
way. 

Against Christian of Denmark were drawn up the Cath- 
olic armies under two distinguished generals, Tilly and Wal- 
lenstein. The presence of Wallenstein especially was of su- 
preme importance. Already he had great influence as being 
the owner of large territorial possessions in the northeast of 
Bohemia, while a huge beer monopoly in Bohemia brought 
him a magnificent yearly income. But it was his qualities as 
a general that were destined to make him so conspicuous in 
the war. His iron discipline, his power of rapidly forming 
an army out of raw recruits, and his swift irresistible move- 
ments made him a most formidable antagonist. 

483. Defeat of the Danes. — The Danish army soon suf- 
fered reverse after reverse. At Lutter, Tilly completely 
routed Christian IV while at Cosel, Wallenstein defeated the 
other Danish army and drove it from Silesia. 

Well might the emperor rejoice even more than at the re- 
sults of the first campaign, for now it was his army and not 
that of the Catholic League that had won the day, and it was 
his general that had controlled all the operations. Hence 
Wallenstein was honored and flattered in every way. He 
\yas declared general of all the forces and admiral of the 
Baltic and of the North Sea. He was given the duchy of 
Mecklenburg and became almost sovereign over all the land 
bordering the Baltic Sea. All that was lacking to complete 
the victory was the town of Stralsund, but in spite of Wallen- 



336 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 

Stein's efforts he failed to take it through the want of a fieet. 
This encouraged the Danes to make another invasion. But 
Wahenstein again proved himself invincible on land. In 
1629 Christian was glad to conclude the treaty of Liibeck by 
which he was obliged to surrender his son's two bishoprics. 

484. Jealousy of Wallenstein. — Wallenstein's success now 
gave a new complexion to the war. The Catholic League be- 
came jealous of the personal success of the emperor and were 
equally jealous of his all powerful general. They at once 
strove to minimize the activity of the emperor and to use the 
victories for the general good of the Church. These two 
things they sought to accomplish by insisting on Wallenstein's 
dismissal, and by procuring from the emperor the Edict of 
Restitution. This Edict provided that all ecclesiastical prop- 
erty secularized since the year 1552 should be restored. 

485. Sweden Intervenes. — This triumphant progress of 
Catholicism in Germany now gave Sweden an opportunity of 
interfering. Sweden was ruled at that time by Gustavus 
Vasa, who had ascended the throne when only seventeen years 
of age. He at once showed signs of precocious military 
ability and emerged successfully from wars against Russia 
and Poland. He even took possession of Livonia on the 
south shore of the Baltic — an acquisition wdiich must have 
already awakened his ambitions in the direction of Germany. 

The fact that the emperor had helped his enemies in Poland 
and that the Protestants appealed to him for help afforded 
him a sufficient pretext for a more active aggressive policy. 
He accordingly posed as the champion of Protestantism and 
entered Germany at the head of an army. His appearance 
thus inaugurated the third period of the war. 



GUSTAITJS ADOLPHUS 



337 



THE SWEDISH PERIOD (163O-1635). 

486. Gustavus in Germany.— It was precisely at the mo- 
ment of Wallenstein's dismissal that Gustavus landed in Ger- 
mau}'. The army of Gustavus was now one of the model 
armies of Europe. Instead of the old-fashioned scattere(i 
cohorts, they were well formed regiments taught to move with 
even moxement and preci- 
sion, while the more efficient 
musket was suhstituted for 
the ancient and unwieldly 
spear and pike. 

So masterl}' were the 
early operations of Cnistavus 
that Xajioleon once re 
marked that they showed 
him to be one of the great 
est generals of his age. At 
first, he delayed his a(l\ance 
till the Protesta:it princes 
of F'randenburg and Saxony 
had delinitel}' joined his 
standard, for he was fear- 
ful of being cut off from 
communication with his base 
of supplies and from the 

possibility of a retreat. But this obstacle was soon sur- 
mounted and Gustavus was able to advance. At Breitenfeld 
near Leipsic his army met the imperial forces under Tilly and 
severely defeated them. 

There was no Wallenstein now to retrieve the disaster and 
all Germany seemed to lay at the feet of Gustavus. He made 
a victorious march through the ecclesiastical principalities of 
southwestern Germany, where town after town fell into his 




Gustavus Adolphus, from a portrait by 
\'an Dyck. Born 1594: killed at Liit- 
zen 163J. 



338 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 

hands. Thence he turned eastwards and invaded Bavaria, 
the very stronghold of Cathohcism. 

487. The Recall of Wallenstein. — There was only one man 
equal to the situation, and that man was Wallenstein. But 
would he now consent to take command after his recent hu- 
miliation? The emperor through sheer necessity made over- 
tures to him. But Wallenstein was now master of the po- 
sition and could make his own terms. As was not unnatural 
he consulted his own interests and policy. His terms were 
that he should have sole and unlimited control of the army, 
that he should be sovereign over any of the provinces that he 
might conquer, and that the emperor should give him one of 
the imperial hereditary states. 

488. Death of Gustavus at Liitzen. — The emperor con- 
sented ; as soon as Wallenstein was on the field the tide of 
Swedish invasion was brought to a standstill. Wallenstein 
by throwing up remarkably strong lines of defense prevented 
Gustavus from taking the city of Nuremberg. Both gen- 
erals then declined an immediate engagement and marched 
jUorthwards into Saxony. Wallenstein hoped to w^in over the 
Elector of Saxony, but Gustavus tried to prevent this. They 
met at Liitzen (1632) where the imperial forces were indeed 
beaten, but the defeat was acknowledged to be a victory when 
it became known that Gustavus had fallen on the field of 
battle. 

489. The Murder of Wallenstein. — Wallenstein had now 
reached the zenith of his power. Bitter experience, however, 
might have taught him that this was also the hour of danger. 
Again the old jealousies against him were aroused. Even 
the emperor began to shrink from his huge debt of obligations 
to Wallenstein and to regard him as a dangerous instrument 



THE FRENCH PERIOD 



339 



no longer of use. The career of Wallenstein began to de- 
cline. Amidst dark clouds of unpopularity he retired to the 
walls of his faithful fortress of Egen but even there he 
was pursued by the daggers of assassins and he perished in 
1634. 

In the same year, the emperor took charge of the splendid 
army that had been left by Wallenstein and at the battle of 

Nordlingen he so effectually 
crushed the Protestants that 
the whole of South Germany 
now lay at the disposal of 
the imperialists (1674). 

490. A New Leader. — 

The question of finding a 
new ally for the Protestants 
was at once raised. James 
I of England had shown 
himself unwilling to do more 
than give fair words, and 
both Denmark and Sweden 
had failed of victory. But 
the changed aspect of the 
Wallenstein. ^y^j. ^yhich had bccomc not 

so much a struggle between Catholics and Protestants as 
between the emperor and those who resented his ever in- 
creasing power, suggested a new ally. The battle of Nord- 
lingen became the signal for French intervention and with 
this we enter upon the last period of the war. 

THE FRENCH PERIOD ( 1 634- 1 648) 

Even during the earlier stages of the war, France had been 
an interested spectator. Both on the east and southwest her 
frontiers were menaced by the possessions of the powerful 



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340 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 

liouse uf Hapsburg". The Spaniards had succeeded in ob- 
taining possession of the pass of the Valtelline between Italy 
and the Austrian Tyrol — an important prize since it secured 
communication between the Hapsburg possessions in Italy 
and Germany. 

491. Cardinal Richelieu was then Prime Minister in France 
and he at once began operations. He assisted the Protestant 
insurgents in the Valtelline against the Spaniards, he formed 
an alliance with Holland for the purpose of attacking Spain 
in her Netherland possessions, and on the southwest he suc- 
ceeded in taking Roussillon, a province of Spain dangerously 
close to the French frontier. More important still was the 
French occupation of the chief fortresses of Alsace. At the 
same time that the French were securing their interests, the 
Swedes were warring in order to retain their hold on northern 
Germany. 

492. Treaty of Westphalia. — It became pretty clear that 
the original purposes of the war had been lost sight of alto- 
gether and that it had degenerated into an indecent struggle 
for the spoils of Hapsburgan territory. At last, all parties 
became weary of the contest. Negotiations were set on foot 
and after a great many preliminary formalities, there was 
signed in 1648 the famous Treaty of Westphalia. 

This treaty settled two very important questions, first the 
religious, secondly the territorial question. 

The religious question was settled mainly on the basis laid 
down by the Treaty of Augsburg of 1555. Each prince was 
to dictate the religion of the state over which he ruled. But 
this right was limited by the liberty allowed to non-conformers 
of emigrating within five years' time. In all imperial courts 
and deputations members of the religious parties were to be 
admitted in equal numbers. The difficulty of ecclesiastical res- 



TREATY OF WESTPHALIA 34I 

ervations was also dealt with in the same manner as in the 
Treaty of Augsburg, only that a different date was fixed, 
namely 1624. That is to say, all benefices secularized before 
this date were to remain as they were. In only two respects 
were there any fresh lines of departure. First the Calvinists 
were recognized and second members of different creeds no 
longer enjoyed equal rights within their respectix'e states. 

493. The Territorial Question was settled by the following 
arrangements : 

France obtained Alsace with the exception of the bishopric 
of Strasburg. 

Sweden obtained Upper Pomerania, part of Lower Pome- 
rania, the cities of Bremen and Verden which had formerly 
belonged to Denmark, and a war indemnity. 

Brandenburg obtained all that part of Pomerania which did 
not go to Sweden. Brandenl)urg was really entitled to the 
whole and therefore received by way of compensation the 
bishopric of Halberstadt, Magdeburg and Minden. 

The boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire underwent 
modifications. Switzerland and the Protestant Netherlands 
were now declared outside its boundaries. The reason of this 
will easily be understood when it is remembered that the pres- 
ent Holy Roman Empire now only meant Italy and Germany, 
and thus all political communication between Germany and the 
aforesaid two countries had altogether ceased. 

494. Results of the Treaty of Westphalia. — The following 
were the most important results of the Treaty- of Westphalia : 
(a) France owing to her possessions in Alsace had from now 
a strong German policy; (b) Sweden from her possession in 
North Germany had now some chance of realizing her ambi- 
tion of converting the Baltic into a Swedish Lake; (c) Bran- 
denburg by its possession of part of Pomerania and the bishop- 



342 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 

rics of Halberstadt, Magdeburg, and Minden found itself in 
possession of important nuclei which were eventually to 
coalesce by future conquests and form the kingdom of Prus- 
sia; (d) In Germany itself, the power of the emperor as such 
was reduced to a mere shadow, the princes of Germany having 
now become so many independent sovereigns. 

495. Foreign Policy of James I. — England, as we have 
seen, interfered very little in the Thirty Years' War. James 
I was anxious to maintain the balance of power in Europe by 
an alliance between himself as the leader of the Protestants 
and Philip III of Spain as leader of the Catholics. Even the 
Spanish occupation of the possessions of his son-in-law the 
Elector Palatine, failed to move him from this policy. He 
even tried to bring about a marriage between his son Charles 
and the daughter of Phillip III. It was only when his son 
who went to Spain in order to woo in person, had been pub- 
licly mocked at by the Spanish court and openly fooled, that 
James began to veer round from his cherished policy. 

Instead of courting an alliance with Spain, James and his 
minister now began to make approaches to France. As a 
seal upon the amity of the two nations Prince Charles was 
married to Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. But in 
spite of this marriage, England still held aloof from actual 
strife and took no substantial part in the great continental 
war. 

496. The Domestic History of James' Reign is more im- 
portant. Already under Elizabeth Parliament had begun to 
assert its powers. Indeed, on two or three occasions an actual 
collision between Elizabeth and Parliament seemed imminent 
and was only averted by the queen's exquisite tact. 

But James was utterly unlike Elizabeth. He had lived all 
his life in Scotland, and had no acquaintance with the temper 



JAMES I AND PARLIAMENT 343 

of the English people. He was thoroughly conceited and 
without any corresponding ability, and he had even a greater 
ambition than his predecessor to strengthen the royal power. 

497. Contest Between James I and Parliament. — Almost 
as soon as he ascended the throne, disputes took place between 
himself and Parliament. These disputes mainly rose from 
his doctrine that kings rule by divine right, a doctrine which 
he pushed to practical extremes. In religious matters he 
refused to listen to any suggestions for the reform of the 
Church and by his high-handed proceedings offended the 
strong moderate party of the Church of England. In his 
relations with Parliament, the king claimed though unsuccess- 
fully the right to decide disputed elections to the House of 
Commons. 

Ignoring the right of Parliament to grant or refuse taxes, 
he himself of his own royal authority levied imposts and rates 
and even had published a book of rates imposing heavy duties 
on almost every article of commerce. Owing to his desire of 
summoning Parliament as seldom as possible, James soon had 
recourse to raising money by forced loans, monopolies, and be- 
nevolences. This roused a spirit of resentment in nearly every 
class of society. In judicial matters, he also clashed with the 
spirit of the constitution. At first, his acts were tempered 
with some show of legality, for he took care to procure the 
support and favorable decision of the judges. But later on he 
threw aside even this outer covering of decency. When the 
Lord Chief Justice Coke upheld the procedure of the law 
against the king's personal intervention, he was roughly de- 
posed and dismissed from office. 

In 1625 the quarrelsome reign of James I came to a close 
and he was succeeded by his son Charles I, in whose reign 
the strife between the king and Parliament was brought to a 
violent climax. 



344 '^"^^^ riilRTY YEARS' WAR 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Germany again the center of the rehgions war — Causes of 
the thirty years' war — Immediate cause of the thirty years' 
war — The Bohemian Period — Battle of White Hill — Triumph 
of Ferdinand — Denmarkian Period — Struggles between Chris- 
tian IV and Tilly and Wallenstein — the Danes defeated — Wal- 
len^tein's success arouses jealousy of Catholic princes — Wallen- 
stein's dismissal — Swedish Period — Gustavus Adolphus — 
Battle of Breitenfeld — Wallenstein recalled on his own condi- 
tions — Battles of Lutzen — Death of Gustavus — Assassination 
of Wallenstein — French Period — Motives of French interven- 
tion — Success of Cardinal Richelieu's policy — Treaty of West- 
phalia — Results of the Treaty of Westphalia — James I's for- 
eign policy — His abandonment of an alliance with Spain and 
his approaches to the French court — Character of James I — 
Disputes arise between himself and parliament — James I raises 
money by unconstitutional means — His interference with the 
courts of justice. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Cambridge, Modern History; Fletcher, Gustavus Adolphus; Gindely, 
Thirty Years' War; Fox-Bourne, Sir Philip Sidney; Gardiner, Thirty 
Years' War; Schiller, Thirty Years' War; Gardiner, The First Two 
Stuarts; Green, History of the English People; De Thon, History of his 
own times, book CXXX and VHI ; Grindely, History of Thirty Years' 
War; Charvenat, Histoire de les Guerres de Trente Ans; Carafa, 
Relatione dello Stafo dell' impcro a della Germania; Meurin, Acta pads 
Westphalianae; Gfrora, Gustavus AdolpJms (Leipsig) ; Tadia, Brief e von 
Wallenstein. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

FRANCE PREVIOUS TO THE REIGxN OF LOUIS XIV 

498. The Two Parties in France. — The great struggle be- 
tween Catholics and Protestants that had made of Germany 
one huge battlefield made itself felt also in France. In France 
also, there were two political parties, one of which identified 
itself with Catholicism and the other with Protestantism. The 
Dukes of Guise supported the Catholics, while the Princes of 
Bourbon upheld the Calvinists. Owing to the minority of 
Francis II and after him of Charles IX Catharine de Medicis, 
the queen mother, held the reins of power as regent. Though 
a Catholic, she upheld neither side but cocjuetted first with one 
side then the other. 

499. Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — From 1559 to 1598, 
the history of the strife is a record of mutual violence and 
deeds of cruelty. One act in this lurid drama has attracted 
the special attention of historians and that is the celebrated 
massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). The circumstances of 
the massacre were as follows : Attempts were being made 
to heal the strife between the rival parties. Admiral Coligny, 
one of the most famous of the Protestant leaders had been 
invited by Charles IX to the French court while a marriage 
was going to be celebrated between the Protestant king of 
Navarre and Margaret, the youngest sister of Charles. In 
order to take part in the rejoicings a number of Calvinists 
hastened from all parts to Paris. Unfortunately these ap- 
parent signs of reconciliation only lead to disastrous conse- 
quences. Admiral Coligny so abused his position as to preju- 
dice Charles against Catharine, and this so frightened the 

346 



QUESTION OF SUCCESSION 347 

queen mother that she arranged a plot to assassinate CoHgny. 
The plot failed and now that so many Calvinists were in Paris 
she was terrified at the possible consequences of her attempt 
upon Coligny's life. She and the Duke of Anjou represented 
to the king that Coligny and the Calvinists were plotting 
against his life; that civil war was imminent, and that the 
only remedy was the wholesale extermination of the Protes- 
tants. The king consented. At the sound of the midnight 
bell of the Church of Saint Germain I'Auxerois, the massacre 
of the Protestants began and lasted three whole days, in the 
course of which thousands of people were killed. 

Whether or not Charles really believed the suggestions of 
the queen mother regarding a Protestant plot and an ap- 
proaching civil war he certainly alleged these things as an 
excuse for his deed. He seems also to have taken care that 
the news of the excuse should reach Rome, for Pope Gregory 
XIII ordered a solemn Te Deum to be sung and congratulated 
the king on his narrow escape. 

500. Question of Succession.— The massacre did not suc- 
ceed in quieting the agitations of the Huguenots. The death 
of Charles IX in 1574 and the accession of Henry III, a weak 
and incompetent man had no influence in diminishing the 
struggle. \\'hen it became evident that Henry III would soon 
die without children, the question of succession brought the 
strife to a climax. 

Both religious parties began to run their own candidates 
for the royal succession. The Protestants supported the 
claims of Henry of Bourbon, the Calvinist king of Navarre, 
and nearest heir to the throne; the Catholics on the other hand, 
offered the throne to the Cardinal of Bourbon, the nearest 
Catholic heir. A Catholic league was formed in order to up- 
hold the claims of the Cardinal but its forces were defeated at 
Courtrai by Henry of Navarre. Henry III was still alive 



348 FR.-IXCE PREJ'IOrS TO THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV 

while they were thus prematurely fighting fur the possession of 
his throne. 



501. Henry IV. — It was natural that neither side should 
have any particular claim on- his sympathy, but his own safety 
urged him to form an alliance with Henry of Navarre. 
Shortly after this he was assassinated and in 1590, Henry of 
Navarre scceeded as Henry IV. 

The religion of Henry I\'' would no doubt luue been an 
insuperable obstacle in the eyes of the majority of his sub- 
jects. This difficulty, however, was soon solved. He an- 
nounced his determination to embrace the Catholic reli.i^ion. 
Many with too great facility have attributed this conversion 
to mere motives of policy. But the after career of Heiu'y 1\' 
showed clearly that he had more sympathy with the Catholic 
than with the Protestant religion. 

502. Edict of Nantes. — One of the most important meas- 
ures of his reign was that which regarded the Protestants. 
He was sincerely desirous of putting an end to religious strife 
and he also saw clearly that the only way to accomplish this 
was to allow a compromise by which each party might find 
itself satisfied with the obtainment of the possible maximum 
of its claims. In 1598, was issued the famous Edict of 
Nantes. This Edict allowed to the Protestants full liberty 
of worship in nearly two hundred towns, most of them in the 
South, while in other parts of the kingdom, the Protestants 
could choose for their place of worship one town in each 
judicial district. Also, they were alUnved to hold office in 
Parliament and in the different administrative offices. As a 
guarantee for all this, certain towns were handed over to the 
Protestants. 

The Catholics on the other hand had the supremacy of 
their faith acknowledged, its festivals made obligatory on all, 



PROSPERITY IN FRANCE 349 

and the continued enjoyment of its revenues. One striking 
feature of the compromising element of the treaty was that 
while the dissenters had to pay tithes to the Catholic Church, 
their own expenses were partly defrayed from the king's own 
purse. 

503, Prosperity in France. — Besides the great religious 
peace, another important element of Henry's reign was the 
rapid growth in the material prosperity of France. This was 
mainly owing to the practical ability of the Duke of Sully, 
Henry's most able administrator. 

It was chiefly in matters of economy that the administra- 
tion of Sully was beneficial to the kingdom. The system of 
levying- taxes was improved so that the greater part of the 
money raised, actually found its way into the treasury. While 
the revenue underwent a diminution from the abolition of 
sinecure offices that used to be sold to the highest bidder, it 
received a compensation by making seats in its Parliament 
or supreme court of justice, hereditary on condition of pay- 
ment of an annual tax. 

Regulations were made for improving the trade of the na- 
tion. Communication between different parts of the kingdom 
was facilitated by the construction of roads and bridges. 
Capital was retained in the kingdom by forbidding the expor- 
tation of money and a better distribution of capital was also 
arrived at by limiting the rate of interest to six per cent. 
Nev/ factories were established, plantations of mulberry trees 
were introduced, and such important public works were suc- 
cessfully executed as the Botanical Garden of Montpellier, the 
Hospital of Christian Charity for invalid soldiers, and other 
benevolent institutions. 

Nor was the Duke of Sully indifferent to the importance of 
a strong maritime and colonial policy. It was in his time that 
Marseilles looms into view as a great mercantile port and that 



350 FRANCE PREVIOUS TO THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV 

the important Canadian colonies were founded at Annapolis 
and Quebec. 

Another beneficent feature of Henry's reign was the care 
shown for the lower classes of the people. 

The sayings attributed to Henry that " He wished that 
every peasant might have a fowl in his pot on Sunday," and 
that " He who robbed the people robbed him," are sufficiently 
indicative of his paternal regard for the lower classes. One 
practical illustration of this we find in his organization of co- 
operative industries in which one-thirtieth of all the earnings 
was to be set aside for the use of disabled workmen. 

504. France a Centralized Government. — Perhaps the only 
real complaint that could be made against Henry was that 
he established too centralized a system of government and that 
he ignored the assistance of the assemblies. But this was not 
altogether his fault. He himself frequently had to complain 
of the ineptitude both of the states general and of the parlia- 
ments. What he therefore could not accomplish through 
others, he had to accomplish by his own efforts, 

505. Louis XIII. — Henry IV. perished in 1610 by the 
dagger of an assassin, and was succeeded by Louis XIII. 

The character of Louis XIII made him unfit for governing. 
He was weak, timid, irresolute, and fit only to be an obscure 
gentleman. The real power was in the hands of two power- 
ful ministers — first, the Cardinal Richelieu and second, his 
successor. Cardinal Mazarin. 

506. Cardinal Richelieu was in many respects the greatest 
politician of his age. He had the rare gift of seeing into 
problems and of distinguishing between what was substantial 
and what was only of transient importance. His whole policy 
was consistently guided by the widest views and by the most 



RICHELIEU 



!5I 



intimate practical acquaintance with the domestic and foreign 
politics of France. His moral was also equal to his mental 
greatness. In spite of all the obstacles, including his own 
wretched health, with which he had to contend he showed un- 
tiring energy and in- 
domitable purpose. 
Cruel he may ha\'e 
been, but it was only 
the cruelty w h i c h 
sweeps away obsta- 
cles from one's path. 
There was nothing 
about the man that 
was either mean or 
low. 

507. Policy of 
Richelieu. — .\n ex- 
amination of the 
general tenor of 
Richelieu's policy 
shows that he had 
always in view two 
main objects. These 
were, first, the con- 
solidation of the 
kingdom under a 
strong centralized 
power and second, 
the crushing of the 
power of the rival house of Austria whose possessions now 
threatened France on both sides. 

The first of these two objects he tried to obtain by reducing 
the power of those who were obstacles in the way of the 



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Cardinal Richelieu. Born 1585; Prime Minister of 
France from 1624 until his death in 1642. 



35^ FAM.vr/i pKjjjors to i he rlilx of louis xir 

centralizing pow er of the king, namely the Calvinists and the 
feudal nobles. 

The Calvinists owing to their restlessness and independent 
political position were a constant menace to the unity and 
safety of the kingdom. Even as early as 1620 they revolted 
but were quieted partly by diplomacy, partly by force. Again 
in 1629 they became still more insolent. In the strong fortress 
of Rochelle, they took up their headquarters and the prospect 
of English assistance tended to make them all the more defiant. 
Richelieu now decided on using overwhelming force. The 
fortress was taken and demolished ; and Richelieu took away 
their towns of security thus reducing them to the position of 
ordinary citizens. 

508. The Nobles who were frequently plotting against the 
government he crushed by the most drastic methods. The 
ringleaders, no matter how powerful they were, speedily found 
themselves on the scaffold. Even high rank and princely 
blood were no protection against his anger. Thus the Mar- 
quis of Montmorency was executed, and the Duke of Or- 
leans, the king's own brother, had to fly to the Spanish 
Netherlands. 

Besides using destructive methods against those who barred 
his way, Richelieu also strove to set up efficient machinery of 
government. 

509. Administrative System. — He deprived the nobility of 
the administrative and judicial functions that had been the pre- 
rogative of their class and entrusted these functions to a 
hierarchy of officials absolutely dependent on the crown. 
Hitherto, the nobleman's domain had been the unit of local ad- 
ministration and the noble himself while receiving the feudal 
dues from tenants did something in return by acting as admin- 
istrator and magistrate. But under Richelieu the nobles began 



RICHEUEi'S POLICY 353 

to be shorn of these responsibilities. France soon became map- 
ped out into new districts governed by a hierarchy of officials 
culminating in a central officer who lived at Paris and who was 
entirely subservient to the king. 

510. Relations with Austria. — We now have to consider 
how Richelieu carried out the second great object of his policy, 
namely the humbling of the rival house of the Hapsburgs. 
This he accomplished by cooperating with and intensifying all 
the different elements that were tending to drag down the 
Hapsburgs. Thus he aided the Protestants in Germany 
against the emperor; in Italy he supported the Protestants of 
the Valtelline against the Spaniards, in the Spanish Nether- 
lands he invoked the hostile interventions of Holland and 
finall3% in Spain he upheld the provincials against Philip IV. 

Besides holding in check his most dangerous foreign enemy, 
he strengthened the northern frontier of France by the cap- 
ture of Artois, and secured the southwestern frontier by the 
still more important occupation of Roussillon. 

511. Effects of Richelieu's Policy. — It must be admitted 
that the strong government of Richelieu was beneficial t<i 
France from almost every point of view. He not only de- 
veloped her internal resources but he also made her strong 
among the nations of Europe. 

Much also might be said of Richelieu's minor achievements, 
amongst them being the foundation of the celebrated French 
Academy, and the establishment of the first French newspaper. 
He himself wrote " The Memoirs of Cardinal Richelieu " and 
the " Testament I^^litique." He died in 1642. In the same 
year Lcjuis XIII also died leaving the crown to the young 
Louis XIV, for whom his mother, Anne of Austria, acted as 
regent. Richelieu's place as minister was taken by Cardinal 
Mazarin, a man of considerable ability but of a lower type 
than Richelieu, 



354 I'K.WCE PRHl'IOl'S TO 11 1 II REIGN OF LOUIS XIV 

512. Cardinal Mazarin continued the same policy of Riche- 
lieu, but soon found that he had to encounter other antagonists 
besides the nobles. Those new enemies were the middle class, 
who now rose in revolt against the court. But eventually the 
good fortune as well as the dexterity of Mazarin won the day. 
He rallied to his side a considerable portion of the army and 
thus overawed the populace, while the nobles seemed to have 
lost the will as well as the power to do harm, in fact they 
seemed to regard the campaign against tyranny as a sort of 
amusement. 

513. The Foreign Policy of Mazarin was also a continua- 
tion of that of Richelieu, and was attended by even more con- 
spicuous success. In this he was greatly helped by an alliance 
which he succeeded in effecting with England. An English 
army landed in the Spanish Netherlands and took one im- 
portant place after another. It was not long before Spain 
became anxious for peace, and after many negotiations, the 
active hostility between France and Spain was ended by the 
Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. 

By this treaty, France acquired a further accession of 
strength on all her frontiers. In the north she acquired a 
number of fortresses, in Flanders. Hainnault and Luxemburg; 
on the east, she was confirmed in the possession of Alsace and 
had also certain limited rights over Lorraine, while in the 
southwest she was allowed to retain the province of Roussillon. 
Besides these actual successes, the way was prepared for fur- 
ther French aggrandizement by the marriage of Louis XIV 
with the Spanish princess, MariaTheresa. It is true that the 
French king at the time renounced all pretensions to the Span- 
ish throne, but in politics expediency often outweighs the 
memory of obligations as the sequel of this incident will 
show, 

Mazarin died in 1661, and at his death Louis XIV at once 



PETITION OF RIGHT 355 

grasped the reins of power, determining that he would be his 
own prime minister. 

514. King Charles I ascended the Enghsh throne in 1625 
and during his reign the struggle between king and parlia- 
ment reached its last terrible phase. A clear idea of this 
momentous struggle can be best obtained by a study of tlie chief 
events that, like links in a chain, lead on from the beginning 
of Charles' reign to its final catastrophe. 

515. Strife with Parliament. — Even from the very outset 
there were misunderstandings. Charles had allowed his par- 
tiality for Catholicism to become visible while parliament in 
its turn showed its distrust to such an extent that it would grant 
certain customs duties only for one year instead of for life as 
had previously been the case. Another cause of bitterness 
was the Duke of Buckingham, Charles' favorite, who drew 
upon himself the hostility of Parliament. Charles was re- 
(juested to dismiss him, but the answer w\as a refusal. There- 
upon parliament refused to grant any more subsidies. This 
forced Charles to have recourse to benevolences, forced loans, 
and other unpopular expedients of raising money. 

Sioi Petition of Right. — At length absolute need of money 
forced Charles to summon the parliament of 1628. On this 
occasion, was drawn up the celebrated Petition of Right, which 
was a recital of previous statutes. It protested against arbi- 
trary punishment, arbitrary taxation, and the billeting of sol- 
diers upon the people. Charles was obstinate at first and 
would not yield. But his needs overpowered his obstinacy 
and finally he signed the petition. 

Charles, however, was not in earnest and he continued to 
levy money by illegal means. Enormous penalties imposed 
for small offenses, high financial monopolies and vexatioiis 



356 FRANCE PREVIOUS TO THE REIGN OF LOL'IS XIV 

customs duties — all these were made use of in order to pro- 
cure money in spite of parliament. 

517. The Religious Element of the Quarrel brought about 
the final clash. Already during the reign of Elizabeth there 
had been within the Anglican Church signs of revolt against 
the practice and ritual established by the crown. The appar- 
ent moderation of Elizabeth's Protestantism was very dis- 
pleasing to those who held to the rigid and extreme views of 
Calvin, The use of the surplice and the Prayer Book were 
denounced by them as " anti-Christian " and contrary to the 
Scriptures. They even went so far as to organize distinct 
congregations of their own, a course of action which gave to 
them the name of Separatists. 

Elizabeth was much opposed to these sects and resorted to 
persecution. This, however, had no bad efifect on their dis- 
position towards the throne itself, and while in religious mat- 
ters they continued dissenters, they still remained loyal sub- 
jects. 

When James I came to the throne, the element of religious 
discontent quickly appeared. The Puritan party in the 
Church presented to him what was called the Millenary Peti- 
tion, begging of him to reform the Church especially in the 
matter of certain ceremonies which they regarded as popish. 
James, however, ignored their petition. He then ordered a 
conference to be held at Hampton Court. 1604, between the 
divines of both parties. The result, however, was no com- 
promise, but deep dissatisfaction on the part of the Puritans 
at the manner in which they had been brow-beaten by their 
royal umpire. 

On the accession of Charles I, the Puritan element in the 
Church became very formidable and it w'as not long before 
it began to ally itself with the elements of political discontent. 
While Charles allied himself with the Arminians. or High 



CHARLES AND PARLIAMENT 2>S7 

Church Party, the House of Commons allied itself with the 
Puritans, who, partly by natural tendency, partly by opposi- 
tion adopted more than ever the extreme doctrines of Calvin. 

518. Laud. — In order to enforce his views, Charles ap- 
pointed as Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, a prel- 
ate, who had all along been the great opponent of Calvinism. 
He was zealous, but a narrow-minded, meddlesome sort of 
person. His views were exceedingly high-church, that is to 
say, he was inclined to such things as stained-glass windows, 
the use of vestments, the placing the table at the east end of 
the church. Laud had been fairly successful in enforcing 
his notions in England but when he tried to introduce the sur- 
plice and the Book of Common Prayer into Presbyterian Scot- 
land he was met by an open revolt. 

This revolt hastened the climax in England. Eor Charles, 
in his anxiety to subdue the Scotch was forced to depend 
upon parliament for supplies. But parliament knew this and 
were rather disposed to regard the Scotch as their friends. 
They granted no supplies but drew up the celebrated docu- 
ment called the Grand Remonstrance demanding better min- 
isters and a more fitting administration of justice. 

519. Arrest of the Five Members. — Charles was ap- 
parently utterly unable to grasp the seriousness of the situa- 
tion. In the year 1642, he made an attempt in the House of 
Commons to arrest five members of the opposition who had 
especially incurred his displeasure. His attempt failed and 
it proved the signal for civil war. The citizens of London 
formed themselves into armed bodies for the defense of parlia- 
ment. Charles on his part began to make immediate prepara- 
tions for war. 

520. The Civil War began in 1642 and lasted till 1646. 
On the side of Charles were Ireland, the middle mK\ south- 



358 FRANCE PREVIOUS TO THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV 

west counties of England, while, on the side of parliament 
were Scotland, the eastern counties and London. 

At first, the war went steadily in favor of Charles. This, 
however, was partly owing to the unwillingness of some of the 
parliamentary generals to destroy completely the royal forces. 
This defect was soon remedied w^hen Cromwell, an able offi- 
cer, came into power. At his suggestion, the old officers were 
dismissed and new men put in their places who could be relied 
upon for thoroughness. At the same time he himself com- 
pletely remodeled the army, only admitting those men who 
were honest and God-fearing, and above all things full of re- 
ligious zeal. 

521. Execution of Charles. — The results were soon mani- 
fest. At Marston Moor and Naseby (1645) the royalist 
forces were shattered, and finally Charles himself became 
a prisoner. Even then his life might have been saved 
if not his crow'n. But his double-dealings cost him both one 
and the other. He carried on separate negotiations with the 
Scotch and with the parliament, playing off one against the 
other. At length Cromwell felt there was only one way out 
of the difficulty. In 1648 there was formed the Court of 
Justice, before which Charles was arraigned and condemned 
to be executed as a traitor. Accordingly in the month of 
January, 1649, Charles I was beheaded. 

522. Cromwell's Government. — It was Cromwell's inten- 
tion at first that England should be governed by a constitu- 
tional parliament. But his efforts in this direction proved 
unsuccessful. One parliament after another proved Unman- 
ageable and thought only of its own powder and interests to the 
exclusion of aught else. Cromw^ell therefore had to carry on 
the w^ork of government himself, and after some time assumed 
the protectorate. Indeed, one may loosely say that his rule 



THE PURITANS 



159 



began from 1649, the year of Charles' execution, and lasted 
until his death in 1658. 

These years were years of growing strength for England. 
Scotland and Ireland were conquered, and the royalist risings 
both in those countries and in England put down with merci- 
less severity. Order and law were made supreme through- 
out the land and many regulations were introduced for the 
material amelioration of the people. 

523. Foreign Policy. — Cromwell 
was especially strong in his foreign 
policy. The English fleet succeeded 
in beating the Dutch, who were now 
rivals with the English for the car- 
rying trade of the world. Hostili- 
ties with Spain were rewarded by 
the conquest of Jamaica, and an al- 
liance with France enabled England 
as we have seen already, to strike 
a blow at Spain in the Spanish Neth- 
erlands. In fact England made her- 
self feared and respected all over 
Europe, and nations courted the 
friendship of Cromwell with an 
eagerness amounting almost to servility. 

524. The Puritans. — During this period the Puritan ele- 
ment was paramount in religious affairs. The Bible was read 
by everybody and its quotations were freely mingled wdth or- 
dinary discourse of daily life. Such offenses as swearing, 
drunkenness, and fornication, were forbidden by the law of 
the land. The severest form of censorship was held not only 
over the public, but even over the private lives of the citizens. 
The spirit of stern and upright morality reigned everywhere. 
It is true that this afterwards frequently degenerated into 




Oliver Cromwell. Born 1599. 
Ruler of Enp;land from 1653 
until his death in 1658. 



360 FRANCE PREVIOUS TO THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV 

hypocrisy, but for the time, such a system brought forth a 
race of men that became the terror of their enemies and the 
stuff of which heroes were made. 

525. Richard Cromwell. — Cromwell died in 1658. He was 
succeeded by Richard Cromwell wdio was of a weak and some- 
what conservative character. It was not long before a reac- 
tion in the direction of a monarchy began to make itself felt. 
The army, especially, began to show- signs of a change. Gen- 
eral Monk at the head of the branch of the army in Scotland 
made himself the intermediary between the nation and the 
exiled Prince Charles, son of Charles I. 

A new' House of Commons was summoned and in 1660, 
Prince Charles was invited to ascend the English throne. He 
accepted the invitation and was welcomed with wild outbursts 
of loyal enthusiasm. 

526. Under Charles II England ceases to be one of the 
prime factors in European politics and for some years plays 
only a subordinate part to France now in the zenith of her 
greatness under Louis XIV. 

527. Colonial Expansion of England. — During all the tur- 
moil of political strife, we must not loose sight of the colonial 
expansion of England, which was indirectly benefited by the 
struggles at home. Already, in the time of Elizabeth, the 
restless spirit of adventure had lead English seamen to ex- 
plore the western seas. And while the Erench \vere settling 
in Canada, the English were forming important settlements on 
the fringe of the coast low^er down. During the reign of 
Elizabeth, Sir Walter Raleigh founded the colony of Vir- 
ginia. Under the auspices of the London Company, the col- 
ony gre\V in numbers and in prosperity. By 1619, its in- 
habitants enjoyed all the privileges of a real representative 



i 



PURITAN EMIGRATION 361 

government. It enjoyed a legislature, consisting of represent- 
atives from the boroughs. These representatives could make 
all needful laws subject to the approval of the Governor and of 
the Company in England. 

So far, the English colonists had come from the wealthiest 
and more liesurely classes of English society. They were aris- 
tocratic in their education and tendencies, and the distinctive 
feature of their colonial settlements was the foundation of 
large plantations separated by wide distances. 

528. Puritan Emigrations. — But during the struggle be- 
tween the Stuarts and the Puritan party in England, there 
took place another stream of emigration of a distinctly differ- 
ent type. Failing to obtain toleration in their own country, 
the Puritans in England were driven to seek for a home else- 
where. In 1628, John Endicott led the first party of emi- 
grants to the Plymouth shores of Massachusetts. Only two 
years afterwards, John W'inthrop lead another party of I^ur- 
itan settlers also to ^Massachusetts but to a point further north, 
at what is now called Boston. 

529. Constitution of Massachusetts. — It was not long be- 
fore the colonists established a form of government that was 
practically free. By 1634, a House of Representatives was 
formed, consisting of two representatives from each town, 
while in 1692. the Charter of King William allowed, (a) the 
people to choose an assembly, the members of which, in their 
turn, were to choose an upper house subject to the approval 
of the governor, (b) Both houses to make laws subject 
to the approval of the Governor, (c) The lower house to 
levy taxes. This last measure was of great importance. It 
involved the power of the purse over which so long and des- 
perate a struggle had been fought between the English King 
and parliament. 



2C^2 FA'.LXCE PREl'IOVS TO THE REIGN OF EOi'IS XIV 

530. Character of the Massachusetts Colonists. — It was 

not long before the peculiar character of the Massachusetts 
colonists vigorously asserted itself, both in intellectual and 
material expansion. Unlike the Virginians, their ranks were 
filled mainly from the middle class of English society. Their 
minds were full of the political and social problems of the day, 
and the very inhospitability and inclemency of the soil became 
a powerful stimulus, constantly urging them to put forth 
their best energies. Massachusetts soon became a powerful 
colony and was well able to take a leading part in the great 
struggles that were impending; first, the struggle between the 
English speaking colonists and the French in Canada, and af- 
terwards, the struggle between the colonists and the mother 
country. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Religious strife in France — Massacre of St. Bartholomew — 
Renewed agitations of the Huguenots — Henry of Navarre suc- 
ceeds as Henry IV — Sincerity of his conversion — Edict of 
Nantes and its importance — Growth of material prosperity un- 
der the Duke of Sully — Henry IV centralized system — Char- 
acter and abilities of Cardinal Richelieu — His formation of a 
strong centralized power in France — His foreign policy directed 
against the House of Austria — He enlarges the boundaries of 
France — Cardinal Mazarin — Success of his foreign policy — 
Treaty of the Pyrenees — Early disputes between Charles I and 
his Parliament — His despotic rule — Petition of Right — Arch- 
bishop Laud — His religious policy in Scotland raises a revolt — 
Parliament connives with the Scotch — Beginning of civil war — 
Remodelling of the Puritan army — Cromwell's victories at 
Marston Moor and at Naseby — Execution of Charles — Crom- 
well's administration — L^prisings in Scotland and in Ireland 
suppressed — Cromwell's successful wars against the Spanish 
and the Dutch — Cromwell's death — The reaction in favor of 
monarchy — Accession of Charles II. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

BussEY AND Caspey, History of France; Baird, Rise of the Huguenofs; 
Adams, Groivlh of Frencli Nation; Wilbekt, flenry of Novaryc; Per- 



GENERAL REFERENCE 363 

KINS, Richelieu and Mazarin; Mackinnon, Grozvth and Decline of the 
French Monarchy; Gardiner, Puritan Revolution; Clarendon, History of 
the Great Rebellion ; Gardiner, Constitutional Documents of Puritan 
Revolution ; Firth, Cromi<:ell; Henderson, Side Lights on English His- 
tory. 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 

531. The Greatness of France. — The reign of Louis XIV 
saw France at the very summit of its greatness. What Spain 
had been, that France had now become. France was now the 
center of European poHtics, both in war and peace, and the fate 
of nations awaited her disposal. 

Nor was this greatness merely transitory, the effect of any 
mere passing combination of circumstances. It was the solid 
result of the evolution of centuries. From the time of Louis 
IX, France had been consolidating her strength, and now stood 
foremost among the nations. 

532. Louis XIV Takes Control. — We have seen that 
Cardinal Mazarin was prime minister while Louis XIV was 
still a minor. And even when he became of age he was still 
content to leave the reins of government in the hands of so 
able a minister. Indeed Louis' favorite occupation seemed to 
denote a temperament particularly adverse to the details of 
state business. Most of his time was taken up in hunting, 
dancing and in light diversions. 

On the death of Mazarin (1661), however, an unexpected 
change took place. It was thought that Louis would still re- 
main in the background and Fouquet, the most active and am- 
bitious of the ministers, aspired to take Mazarin's place. So 
certain was he of his own promotion that to honor the oc- 
casion he even entertained his sovereign to a banquet which 
must have cost a substantial fortune. But his hopes were al- 
most immediately dashed to the ground. Louis resolved to 
be his own prime minister. Fouquet was arrested on charges 

364 



LOUIS XIV 365 

of peculation and treason, and his permanent imprisonment 
shortly afterward successfully prevented him from any further 
interference. 



533. Character of Louis XIV. — The personality of Louis 
now becomes of importance. He does not seem to have pos- 
sessed much original ability but he well knew how to fill his po- 
sition with dignity. Forces quite independent of himself had 
elevated him into a high position, but once there he knew how 
to become a graceful and ef- 
ficient figurehead. His ma- 
jestic manners and stately 
bearing, his innate sense of 
decorum made him a leader 
of fashion. And fashion 
was a serious element that 
now had to be reckoned -with 
in European politics. 

The court of France soon 
became famous for its* splen- 
dor and for the formality 
of its etiquette. All the 
king's acts were done in pub- 
lic. Even his levee on ris- 
ing in the morning became 
a kind of social reception, 
his different articles of apparel being handed to him through 
the hands of a hierarchy of officials. 

It would, however, be an injustice to think that Louis had 
no more serious qualities than these. There were, as a matter 
of fact, few who could devote themselves so assiduously to 
business. He could work from morning till night like a clerk 
behind his desk. More than this, he could appreciate the 
value of a broad policy like that of Richelieu and he could con- 




Louis XIV. Born 1638; King of l'"raiice 
from 1643 until his death in 171 5. 



^oo r«£ .*^;£ of^ UK75^ xir 

nwie ihai jvvlky with his o>»rn «v?imuwM^ Tlwt a^^Jiin, 
\>h«ber by ^v>i t»>mM>e or by 9i ket*^ liisoenxnvMW ot char- 
x^cwT> be j^ > j>erj!oai with mini^^wrs whosjc AbilitW* 

, - - - ..uvrAi whvxsae wiU was for 

ra»i^y x^Kirs to> sway the vksii«ws of EaropCs \\> uwy ik>w 

l.oii«s XIX'^ tT\M« T\w points ot view, nrsi, 

- . 'xi |vrv^Tt^j5S ot Fra«>oe it^h\ seooi*ih\ 

Aivf Ai>d the t^'ber ^v^w^rs v>t Eurv>i>t. 

534 r.vcsuc PoBcy <rf Loucs XiV. — The ceiiiralwii^ 
}v\lky of RkheJk^i awxi M;iuainn was brosaght to its cv^r.vp e- 
t»o«4 by Loais. This he did by still farther de|^^ft?si?x§: any 



i» nv>T^ eoc:ksias5>cs to his coaiKals; the pariian>e«ts he t<- 

ihxevi to i»ij>«itity by pjnev^eaitii:^ thwii fn^w nwkn\^ any Tx^- 

.. , \ --^ --- -^ v^ — .1 eilicts; the lower or- 

Loais was de*eiTi^n>ed that he aloaie showM he nvaswr. It 

is tn>e tbat he ^ ;^.5 a sy^wrn in w hich each acti\~ity of 

•:-•■; - :^ -^ ---^-.;..,' — ., •- >ts own Special 

- - - - >!elt \xas to be 

the cesatral palsari:^ oi^n of the wi»«>3e sy^j^ean, — the center, 

" -I ; - i be fdt by eviMy individnal in the re- 

"."/.. :c>: ,\.-. .... V x.-.^viomtv 

The mmiswrs. hox^ev^tr, wix> assisted him in this gneat w»Tk 
w^wie men of sf*eciall ability, \\~hife they xcere placed in a 

- ~ . ~ . ' - they w~eje n>en whc*se 

^- . ~ . - ::TeH3it. 

53^ r.x-.iestic Poiicy of Coib«^. — Chi the Jea:"^ ' "*!?.- 
jaiin, Cc^-ben becan')e Proci-jrator vVi-jeral of the .;s. 

His administration gave an imn>ediaw inipeixis to ahivtst ex^exy 
dej«nn>ent of trade and oomn>eToe- 



(jiWtcrt at once reformed the nyhttm of v^txhivm which had 
a^ain Ixrcome vexatious without j/rofiting the country. '1 hoie 
who had mi.sapi^n4»riated the taxes were called to account anrl 
severely jnjnished. llavinj^ insured to the crown the rece|/tion 
of its revenues, he discharji^ed the heavy delits due fr^/m the 
treasury by a a^mpromise which am^Ajnte^l alnr^/st t<'> a bank- 
ruptcy discharj^e. 

He then tried to lessen the Ijrurden of taxation upon the 
I^eople by depending less up^^ direct and more upon indirect 
taxation, that is to say, he raised taxes on the actual buying 
and c<^^sumpti«^^ of goods, and imp^^^sed heavy excise and 
stamp duties. 

CoUxrrt alvj employed every means for increasing the nat- 
ural wealth of the jcingd^mi. Tie UfSttrtfl native manufac- 
tures by discouraging the importation of foreign-made gfjfjAs 
anrl by granting t/> manufacturers such privileges as mf/nf/p- 
olies, honors, and Ixjunties. Xo doubt, this prottcUf/n of na- 
tive industry did harm in the long run by making the mami- 
facturer t'^x^ dependent on the state and by interfcrring with 
the natural laws of trade. But the immediate effects of the 
system were grxxl. Manufacturers received at least a start. 

Collx:rt also brought the French navy into a flourishing con- 
dition. Besides ^Aiilding large dock-yards, and increasing the 
large jx^rt t^jwn of Marseilles, he sent consuls to different 
places on the Mediterranean, who largely increased V tench 
trade. 

\or did CyA]tert neglect the means of internal communica- 
tion. The old roads were repaired and new ones constructed. 
It was Colbert who first recognized the immense importance of 
canals as cheap and easy means of freighting goo<ls. 

One remarkable project of his was that of making a canal 
to connect the Mediterranean coa^it of France v.ith it- coast 
Ujrdering the Atlantic. 

In other departments as well Gilbert showed remarkable 



368 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 

activity. The drawing up for the first time of a table of sta- 
tistics, the formation of a magnificent hbrary, the formation 
of a commercial code of law, the institution of the Academies 
of Science and of Architecture, the erection of the Hotel des 
Invalides, of the Fagade of the Louvre, and of the triumphal 
arches of St. Denis and St. Martin — all these testify to his 
versatile ability. 

536. Le Tellier and Louvois, as Ministers of War accom- 
plished great reforms. Under their supervision, the French 
army underw'ent a considerable improvement. Uniforms were 
for the first time introduced. Not only did these uniforms 
serve the purpose of distinguishing the soldier from the civil- 
ian, but they also gave greater respectability and attraction to 
the military profession. 

The discipline of the army was impuoved, and the introduc- 
tion of the bayonet added to its fighting power. Hitherto the 
spear or pike had been used separately from the firearm. 
Now a short spear was attached to the fire arm itself and the 
w^eapon could thus serve a double purpose. 

Connected with improvements in the army might also be 
mentioned the wonderful advance made in the art of military 
fortification. This was mainly owing to the genius of a great 
engineer. 

537. Vauban had already attracted attention by the skill 
with which he constructed the long trenches connecting several 
lines of approach. His acquaintance with the w'eaknesses of 
the enemy's fortifications soon enabled him to improve the 
fortifications of his own country. Under his direction a great 
number of important forts were constructed, and old ones 
were greatly improved. 

Even at the present day, the principles laid down by Vauban 
are followed in the construction of fortresses. His great merit 



COLONIAL POLICY 369 

seems to have been the discarding of a great number of arbi- 
trary precepts and the introduction of a few simple rules ap- 
plicable to buildings of all dimensions. 

What has been said will suffice to show how Louis by his 
choice of trained experts knew how to develop all the resources 
of the country — financial, economic, artistic, and military. 
But something ought still to be said regarding the colonial pol- 
icy of Louis XIV. 

538. Colonial Policy. — This more than anything else per- 
haps may be considered as his own particular department. 
Soon after the discovery of America, various colonies had 
been established in the great continent of the west. There 
were the English colonies established in the eastern part of 
our present United States, the Spanish colonies in the Califor- 
nias, the French in Canada and along the banks of the Missis- 
sippi. These French colonies were regarded with peculiar 
pride by Louis XIV who dreamed of a great and [iermanent 
empire beyond the seas. 

539. Religious PoHcy.— There is still one thing that is 
missing in our estimate of Louis, and that is his policy in mat- 
ters of religion. During the early part of his reign he was 
content to follow the policy laid down by Richelieu and Maz- 
arin. But during the last half of his reign when Colbert, his 
most prudent adviser, had passed away and when his head 
began to be intoxicated with success he adopted a new and 
aggressive policy of his own. 

The Calvinists had become thriving and prosperous, and 
Louis longed for their conversion to the Catholic faith. At 
first, peaceful measures were resorted to. But when the Cal- 
vinists turned a deaf ear to promises and bribes, forcible meas- 
ures were adopted. Their taxes were increased, they were de- 
barred from promotion in the state and in society, and finally 



370 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 

anticipating' the conduct of the English government troops in 
Ireland, troops of soldiers were quartered on Calvinist fam- 
ilies, in the hopes that rough treatment might aid the persua- 
sions of the missionary preachers. At length the climax was 
reached by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. 
By this deed all toleration was at once done away with. The 
effects on the prosperity of France were disastrous. Not only 
did the continual flight of the Calvinists to other countries 
weaken the industrial and money-making population of 
France, but when France was surrounded by a ring of foes 
the revolt of the Calvinists in the interior of France consider- 
ably impeded Louis' movements. 

540. The Jansenists. — Another element of religious strife 
was furnished by the rise of the Jansenists. In opposition to 
the political tendencies and lax principles of some of the clergy, 
a sect was foiuided by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, and 
by Jean du Vergier, Abbot of St. Cyran. The center of the so- 
ciety was at Port-Royal near Versailles. Not only did the 
Jansenists become conspicuous for their strictness of life but 
their doctrines also were in some respects divergent from the 
established beliefs. 

Serious attention began to be aroused when the pope con- 
demned five propositions supposed to be contained in a book 
by Jansen. The Jansenites screened themselves by main- 
taining that the five propositions were not contained in the 
book at all and that the pope not being infallible in matters 
of faith could not have decided "whether the propositions were 
contained therein. 

The controversy gathered in intensity until at length Clem- 
ent XI published a bull in which he declared that the pope is 
infallible in deciding questions of dogmatic facts ( 1705). ■ 

This decision, however, did not quiet the Jansenists. 

After the death of Jansen, a French Orator called Ouesnel 



GALLIC AN PROPOSITIONS 37 1 

became their leader. He issued a book called " Moral Reflec- 
tions." The book was undoubtedly full of pious enthusiasm, 
but certain propositions were decidedly Jansenistic and in 171 3 
one hundred and one propositions were condemned as such by 
Pope Clement XI, in his bull called the " Unigenitus." 

The refusal of the Jansenists to accept this bull meant their 
complete severance from the Church. Even in our own times 
the sect of the Jansenists exists in Holland. They still admit 
the primacy of the pope, and they still have orders that are 
recognized as valid by Catholics, but the pope refuses to have 
any dealings with them until they accept the bull " Unigen- 
itus." 

In France, however, the sect rapidly died out. This was 
chiefly owing to the hostility of Louis XIV^ wIkj objected to 
them partly for the same reason tliat he objected to the Cal- 
vinists. 

Before finishing with the religious aspect of France under 
Louis XIV there is still one other movement that has to be 
considered. 

541. Quarrel With the Pope. — The king of France had 
always enjoyed the right of receiving the revenues of vacant 
bishopics and of appointing the livings within these bishopics. 
But there were four exceptions, namely, the dioceses of 
Guienne, Languedoc, Provence, and Dauphine. Louis' at- 
tempt to extend his right to the four provinces brought him 
into collision with the pope. Accordingly. Louis in order 
to substantiate his claim convened a national synod attended 
by the Jesuits and many of the compliant clergy. 

542. The Galilean Propositions. — In this synod (1682), 
the following four propositions were laid down: (i) that 
in temporal matters, the temporal power is independent of the 
spiritual; (2) that a general council is superior to the pope; 



372 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 

(3) that the apostolic power is restricted by the canons and 
by the rules, manners and customs of the GalHcan Kingxlom; 

(4) that the judgment of the pope is not irreversible until 
conferred b}^ the consent of the whole Church. 

These four propositions were drawn up by Bossuet, a cele- 
brated French preacher. He. however, afterwards repented 
of his attitude on this question. ^Moreover, in 1697 the four 
propositions were formally abrogated and the French clergy 
made their repentant submission to the Holy See. 

543. Relations With Foreign Countries. — \\'e have al- 
ready indicated that the domestic policy of Louis XIV might 
be divided into chronological periods, the earlier and the 
later. During the earlier period, under the able administra- 
tion of Colbert he was uniformly successful; during the later 
period there were disturbances that combined with his own 
high-handed policy to diminish his previous success. The 
same might be said of his foreign policy. 

This also might be divided into two periods, the first ex- 
tending from his assumption of power up to the treaty of 
Nymeguen in 1678, and the second period dating from this 
treaty onwards. During the first period Louis contented him- 
self with successfully pursuing the policy of Richelieu and 
Mazarin, a policy which consisted in restoring what had been 
the natural boundaries of France. But after the treaty of 
Nymeguen he abandoned this moderate policy and laid himself 
out for a policy of mere conquest and aggrandizement. 

544. Weakness of the French Frontier. — The frontier 
whose weakness was the most immediate source of danger to 
France was the Northeast. On the other side of this frontier 
were the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comte, or Free 
Country. Naturally these provinces were the first object of 
Louis' attention. 



TRIPLE ALLIANCE 373 

An excuse was not wanting for commencing hostilities. His 
wife, Maria Theresa, was the elder sister of the Spanish king, 
and through her he laid claim" to several provinces in the 
Netherlands. There was indeed no reason why he should limit 
his claim here, and as a matter of fact he afterwards published 
A little treatise in which he laid claim to the whole. 

545. Attack on the Netherlands. — In 1667 Louis invaded 
the Netherlands and Franche-Comte. The campaign was 
one peculiarly adapted to Louis' temperament. There were 
no dangerous pitched battles, but only sieges in which Louis 
loved to make his camp spectacular for its grandeur and mag- 
nificence. The enemy were weak and coukl make little resist- 
ance. Town after town fell into Louis' hands and Franche- 
Compte was completely overrun by French troops. 

546. The Triple Alliance. — These successes, however, in- 
spired Holland with the greatest alarm. She recognized in 
the Spanish Netherlands a useful buffer state between herself 
and France, and was determined not to have such an ambitious 
neighbor dwelling at her very gates. She therefore sought 
the aid of England and Sweden and thus in 1668 was formed 
the famous Triple Alliance consisting of those three countries. 

Louis found it prudent to yield and he signed the Treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), by which he gave up Franche- 
Compte but was allowed to retain some important towns 
along the Flemish frontier. 

547. Attack on Holland. — Louis' retreat was however, only 
the backward step to another leap forward. Holland now 
became the direct object of his attack. For it was Holland 
that had been so active against him in the Triple Alliance. 
Moreover, even before the war of Spanish Netherlands there 
had been a keen rivalry between the Dutch and the French 



374 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 

mercantile fleets. Indeed, some of the protective duties of 
Colbert had been in effect an economic war against Holland. 
Besides all this Louis had the greatest aversion and contempt 
for those whom he considered as a plebeian nation of common 
heretical shop-keepers. 

But he was determined this time to be foiled by no adverse 
league. He endeavored to isolate Holland before attacking 
her. And in this he was greatly helped by the perfection of 
the French diplomatic service. Sweden was detached from 
the Triple Alliance and Charles H of England was even in- 
duced to give Louis active assistance. Litervention from Ger- 
many was guarded against by bribing several of the German 
princes, while Spain owing to her decline might now be con- 
sidered a negligible quantity. 

But the resistance offered by Holland was stronger than 
be expected. The heroic resistance of the Dutch under their 
able general, William of Orange, considerably delayed the 
movements of the French army. And every delay meant dan- 
ger to the success of Louis' plans. For the nations were 
again taking alarm at the aggressions of France. Another 
league was concluded which included the emperor. Spain, Hol- 
land, Denmark, and finally even England, and a second time 
Louis found it prudent to retire from the conflict. 

Though Louis had had to fight against many more foes than 
during his campaign against the Spanish Netherlands, he 
came out of it with much more signal success. 



^Js' 



548. The Treaty of Nymeguen was signed in 1678. France 
not only obtained possession of all the important frontier towns 
in the Netherlands but she also obtained permanent posses- 
sion of Franche-Compte. 

549. The Period of Aggressive Policy (1678-1714). — We 

now enter upon the second period of the foreign policy of 



WAR OF THE PALATINATE 375 

Louis. He now abandons the conservative policy of merely 
strengthening the frontiers of France and embarks upon a 
policy of conquest and aggression which was to end disas- 
trously for France. 

He began first in the debatable region between France and 
Germany. The bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun had 
been ceded to France with their dependencies. But the ques- 
tion rose as to what were these dependencies. A similar 
question also rose regarding the other territories that had 
been ceded to Louis, This gave an opportunity for interfer- 
ence. He set up certain prize courts as they would be termed 
in our days, and these prize courts being under his influence 
gave their decision all along the line in Louis' favor. Then, 
not content with legal pilfering of this kind he openly and 
unwarrantably seized the city of Strasburg. Nor could the 
emperor at that time make any resistance, for his hands were 
tied by the invasion of the Turks in the lower parts of the 
empire. 

550 Attack on the Palatinate. — About three years after 
this, Louis perpetrated another great wrong. In 1685 the 
Elector Palatine died and Louis at once put in an unfounded 
claim to the regions of the Lower Palatinate. Germany re- 
sisted his claim but he appealed to force. And so a district 
of about thirty miles in extent containing opulent and flourish- 
ing towns was devastated with every circumstance of cruelty. 
Especially worthy of regret was the destruction of the beauti- 
ful city of Heidelburg on the Rhine. 

Such wanton aggressions could no longer be tolerated, and 
in 1686 a defensive league was formed against France, con- 
sisting of Germany, Spain, Sweden, and Holland. Even the 
pope himself who had been grossly insulted by Louis joined 
the League. But as yet the League could do very little in the 
way of actual war. It was reserved for Louis himself to com- 



3/6 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 

mit that one vital m 
whole future career. 



mit that one vital mistake which had the effect of checking his 



551. William of Orange Becomes King of England. — It 
was just at this time that the people of England being an- 
gered at the absolute rule and Catholic tendencies of James 
II, the last of the Stuart kings, offered the English throne to 
his son-in-law, William of Orange. William at first was 
obliged to hesitate for Louis might have seized the opportunity 
of invading Holland during his absence. But Louis com- 
mitted the fatal mistake of invading Germany. When Louis 
and his army were thus safely out of the way in Germany, 
William at once set sail for England and accepted the English 
throne. 

Thus, Louis' greatest enemy, the most determined and 
skilled organizer of the forces arrayed against him was in a 
position to strike. Soon France was surrounded on all sides 
by a ring of foes. The French generals though able men 
were gradually driven back. At sea, French commerce was 
seriously crippled by having to face two such powerful 4leets 
as those of EnHand and Holland. 



'fe' 



552. Treaty of Ryswick, — Louis, therefore, began to set 
on foot negotiations and the result of these was the Treaty of 
Ryswick (1697). The terms of this treaty showed how much 
weaker had become the position of Louis. It was substantially 
a list of French concessions. Louis had to give up all con- 
quests made since the Treaty of Nymeguen. with the exception 
of Alsace. Lorraine was yielded into the hands of its lawful 
owner, Duke Leopold. The provisions of the treaty most 
harmful to French interests were the occupation of the frontier 
towns of the Spanish Netherlands by Dutch garrisons as 
security against French aggressions, and the recognition by 
Louis of the sovereignty of William in England. By the 



SPANISH SUCCESSION 277 

first of these clauses Louis lost part of the fruits of even his 
earlier conquests, and by the second he recognized the com- 
manding position of his hated rival, William of Orange. 

553. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). — One 

would have imagined that after this humiliation Louis would 
have desisted from dreams of conquest and aggrandizement. 
Moreover, his treasury was nearly depleted and the fighting 
strength of the nation considerably reduced. But it was pre- 
cisely now that Louis began to push forward the most aggres- 
sive of all his schemes. 

554. The Spanish Succession. — Ever since the accession of 
Louis XIV, the question of the succession to the Spanish 
throne had been uppermost in the minds of statesmen. Charles 
II, the reigning king of Spain, was of an extremely delicate 
constitution and liable to die any moment. In such an event 
there were three claimants to the Spanish throne. These were 
the Electoral Prince of Bavaria, the Archduke Charles of 
Austria and the son or grandson of Louis XIV. The death, 
however, of the electoral prince of Bavaria soon left the field 
open only to the other two contestants. 

Louis saw clearly the risk of grasping at the whole, for the 
union of the two kingdoms of Spain and Erance would upset 
the balance of power and would probably provoke a general 
war. He therefore drew up a treaty of partition between 
himself and the Archduke Charles of Austria by which Charles 
was to have Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia, and the colonies, 
while Louis' son, Philip Duke of Anjou, was to have Naples, 
Sicily, the ports of Tuscany, and the Duchy of Lorraine. 

The king and the people of Spain however strongly resented 
foreign interference and this arbitrary division of their terri- 
tories. They began to choose for themselves and partly owing 
to Erench diplomatic influence and partly to the advice of the 



3/8 THE AGE OE LOT IS XIV 

])ope the Spanish king drew up a will in which he left all 
his possessions to Philip, Duke of Anjou. 

555. Louis Claims Spain. — Shortly after this, the Spanish 
king died. At once Louis XIV had to decide the important 
question. Should he ahide by the treaty and thus be sure 
of at least a part, or should he abide by the will and try for 
the whole? He decided on the latter alternative. 

The immediate results justified his decision. There was of 
course much fierce indignation. But then the matter would 
have dropped, for William could not persuade the English 
parliament to declare war. But Louis himself again com- 
mitted a mistake that placed him at the mercy of his antago- 
nists. He expelled the Dutch garrisons from the fortresses of 
the Netherlamls and put French garrisons in their place. 

556. The Grand Alliance. — At once this was the signal 
for war. The English parliament supported William with all 
its might, and William now set on foot the Grand Alliance for 
the frustration of Louis' plans. England, Germany, Holland. 
Austria, and later on, Portugal and Savoy joined together for 
the purpose of removing the French claimant from the Spanish 
throne and especially of restoring the barrier between France 
and Holland. 

557. Marlborough and Eugene. — The first military leader 
of the allies was the renowned Duke of Marlborough and 
second to him was Prince Eugene of Savoy. During the 
struggle, the important battle of Blenheim was fought in Bava- 
ria, and the battle of Ramillies, Oudinard, and Malplaquet in 
the Netherlands. All these batttles were won by the allies. 
But France was not altogether a loser. Spain sided with her. 
and it was in Spain that French arms met with success. Also 
the French generals were men of considerable skill and suc- 
ceeded for some time in holding the allies in check. 



PEACE OF UTRECHT 379 

558. Treaty of Utrecht, — But at length France became 
weary of the struggle and in England the ministry that had 
been most responsible for the war was supplanted by another 
eager for peace. When the main contestants in the struggle 
were thus anxious for peace hostilities speedily subsided and 
in 1 7 14 was made the important treaty of Utrecht betw^een 
all the belligerent powers except the emperor. 

The terms of the treaty w^ere as follows : 

(a) The French obtained the recognition of Philip as 
kir.g of Spain though Philip had to renounce all future claims 
to the French crown. 

(b) England obtained Gibraltar and Minorca, also New- 
foundland, Nova Scotia, and Hudson Bay; she also secured 
the line of Protestant succession on her own throne. 

(c) The Duke of Savoy, Prince Eugene, received the 
Kingdom of Sicily. 

(d) The House of Brandenburg in Prussia was rewarded 
for its share in the struggle by obtaining the province of Upper 
Gelderland and by being raised to the dignity of a kingdom. 

With the Treaty of Utrecht ended the last w^ar of Louis. 
His schemes of universal conquest were certainly not real- 
ized, but France had brilliantly defied the whole of Europe, 
and though she had suffered some loss, she still remained 
one of its first powers. Great indeed must ha\-e been her 
internal strength to have stood as she did the shock of so 
many wars. 

\\'ithin a few years after the Treaty of Utrecht Louis XIV 
died and was succeeded by his son Louis XV. 

559. Charles II of England.— During the war of Louis 
XTV against Holland England had been the ally of France. 
Charles H did not hesitate to accept French gold in order to 
make himself independent of Parliament. In the secret treaty 
of Dover (1670) drawn up between himself and Louis, Charles 



380 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 

promised to establish Catholicism in England and to join Louis 
in the attack on Holland, provided Louis would give him an 
annual allowance of two hundred thousand pounds and the 
assistance of French troops in case of an uprising. The terms 
of this treaty were kept secret even from the majority of 
Charles' own ministers. But the general drift of Charles' 
policy could not be kept secret. 

560. Domestic Affairs. — More important than the foreign 
policy of England is her internal history during this period. 
War against Holland was indeed declared and an attack made 
upon the Dutch fleet, but Parliament refused to support the 
war and Charles was practically disabled from giving to Louis 
any continued assistance. 

Again the religious question arose and formed a great dis- 
turbing element. In the early part of Charles' reign, attempts 
were made to force the Church of England upon the people. 
There were passed in quick succession the Corporation Act 
which allowed only Anglicans or members of the state church 
of England to hold office, the Act of Uniformity which com- 
pelled every clergyman, every Fellow of a college, and every 
schoolmaster to accept the Book of Common Prayer and to 
sw^ear that resistance to the crown was unlawful; the Con- 
venticle Act which forbade religious meetings other than those 
of the Church of England, the Five Mile Act which prevented 
clergymen save bona fide clergymen of the Church of England 
from settling within five miles of a corporate town and from 
teaching in schools. 

By these acts, all those who differed from the teaching and 
practice of the Anglican Church were driven from her pale. 
Even to this day there remains the line of distinction betw^een 
the Anglican Church and dissenters. 

561. The Test Act. — Another disturbing religious element 
was Charles' tendencies to Catholicism. When it became 



WILLIAM AND MARY 38 1 

known that several Catholics held offices of high trust, a wave 
of anti-Catholic agitation began to rise throughout the coun- 
try. Soon Parliament passed the celebrated Test Act by which 
all persons in office had to take an oath denying the doctrine 
of transubstantiation. The immediate result of this was that 
the Duke of York, the king's own brother and future heir to 
the crown resigned his position as High Admiral. The Prot- 
estant party now went further than this and tried by an exclu- 
sion act to exclude James from the succession. But a strong 
reaction set in and on the death of Charles II in 1685 James 
was allowed to succeed. 



562. The Reign of James II was remarkable for the culmi- 
nation of the religious difficulty that had been bequeathed to 
him by Charles. For James II was a pronounced Roman 
Catholic. He introduced Catholics into his privy council, he 
gave Catholics important positions in the Church and in the 
universities and through the Earl of Tyrconnel he attempted 
to place Catholics in the state offices in Ireland. Finally, 
matters came to a crisis when James passed the Declaration 
of Indulgences, which by virtue of the King's dispensing 
power, did away with all penal laws against nonconformity 
including Catholicism. 

While the temper of the nation was thus being aroused at 
the relaxation of the penal laws against the Catholics, the news 
was spread that the queen had given birth to a son. Up till 
now, ]\Iary. the Protestant daughter of James and wife of 
William of Orange, had been the nearest heir. But she was 
now excluded from the succession by one who would doubtless 
be brought up a Catholic. 

563. William and Mary. — The nation therefore offered the 
English crown to W'iUiam of Orange. It was accepted. 
James II fled to France and in 1689, William and Mary as- 



382 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 

cended the throne by act of Parliament. This event is known 
as the EngHsh Revolution. 

The part taken by William in the Grand Alliance against 
France has already been explained. The domestic aspect of 
his reign now demands our attention. 

His accession marked a distinct progress in the English 
Constitution. The king now reigns explicitly only by act of 
Parliament and there are now two ways in which the king is 
now kept dependent upon Parliament. First, there was the 
annual budget. This means that every year a financial state- 
ment has to be made to Parliament, after which it is decided 
what taxes should be imposed and to what purpose they should 
be applied. Such an arrangement as this inevitably takes the 
power of the purse completely out of the king's hands. Second 
there is the Mutiny Bill, which renews each year the author- 
ity of officers in the army. Thus if in any year the Mutiny 
Bill were not passed, the army would ipso facto be dissolved. 

564. Queen Anne. — "William died in 1702 and in the same 
year was succeeded by Oueen Anne. She carried on success- 
fully the anti-French policy of her predecessor and it was 
during her reign that the great general, the Duke of Marl- 
borough won against the French the victories of Blenheim, 
Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. 

The two most important home events of her reign are : 

(a) The union of Scotland with England in 1707. One 
parliament now governed the two countries while Scotland 
shared in all the English rights of trade. Also the Scotch 
Church and the Scotch law were to be left undisturbed. Scot- 
land gained considerably from this union and it is from this 
date that her most important commercial towns begin to make 
their appearance. 

(b) The rise of party government in England. This 
means that government in England came to be carried on by 



SUMMARY 383 

the political party that enjoyed a majority of votes in the 
country. There were at that time in England two great politi- 
cal parties, the Whigs, who corresponded to our present day 
liberals and the Tories who correspond to the conservatives. 
If for example, a majority of ^\^higs were elected to Parlia- 
ment, then government would be carried on by the Whigs; 
on the other hand, a majority of Tory votes would mean a 
Tory government. 

At first the sovereign chose the ministers, but later on even 
this duty fell into the hands of the leader of the majority. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Slow growth of the French power — Character of Louis XTV 
— Splendor of his court — Louis' skill in choosing ministers — 
Centralizing policy of Louis — Colbert as minister of finance — 
Economic reforms of Colbert — Important public works con- 
structed by Colbert — His activity in matters of learning and 
of education — Le Tellier and Louvois as war ministers — Im- 
provements in the army — V^auban the engineer — Religious pol- 
icy of Louis XA^ — his severity towards the Calvinists — The 
Jesuits and the Jansenists — Condemnation of the Jansenists — 
Louis' quarrel with the Pope — The four Gallican propositions — 
Early foreign policy of Louis — His war in the Spanish Nether- 
lands — The Triple Alliance — Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle — 
Louis' war against Holland — He isolates her — Holland's heroic 
resistance — Another league against Louis — Treaty of Nymeg- 
nen — Second Period — Louis' aggressive policy in Alsace — In 
the Palatine — Another league formed against him — Louis' 
fatal mistake in attacking Germany — William III of England — 
France beaten in the war — Treaty of Ryswick — War of the 
Spanish Succession — Causes that lead up to the War — Louis 
I'crsus the Grand Alliance — Battles of Pdenheim — Ramillies, 
Audenardi and Malplaquet — Treaty of LTrecht — Charles IPs 
foreign policy — His severity to France — Secret Treaty of 
Dover — Religious policy of Charles — Act of Plniformity — 
Conventicle Act — Charles' religious convictions — The Test 
Act — Accession of James II — The dispensing power — De- 
thronement of James II — Accession of William III — Consti- 
tutional position of the King — Reign of Queen Anne — Union 
of Scotland with England — Rise of Party Government in Eng- 
land. 



384 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Hassall, Louis XIV; Perkins, France under Louis XIV; E)ukE op 
Saint Simon, Memoirs; Baird, Huguenots and Revocation of the Edict 
of Nantes; Rogers, Economic Interpretation of History; Airy, Louis XIV ; 
Morris, Age of Anne; Duruy, History of France; Michaud, Louis 
XIV; Green, History of the English People; Airy, English Restoration 
and Louis XIV; Macaulay, History of England; Traill, William III ; 
jNIorris, Age of Anne; Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England; 
Taswell-Langmead, Constitutional History of England; Adams, Eng- 
land under Charles II; Burton, Reign of Queen Anne; Diary of Samuel 
Pcpys; Memoirs de Louis XIV sur la Guerre de Hollande; Gruffet 
(Paris), Recueil de lettres pour servir a I'Histoire Militaire de Rcgne de 
Louis XIV ; Rousset, Hist, de Louvois; Gremblet, Letters of William 
III and Louis XIV; Benoit, History of the Edict of Nantes; Somers, 
Tracts; Macpherson's Original papers; Stanhope, Impartial History of 
Anne's Reign; Choisy, Memoirs pour servir a I'Histoire de Louis XIV ; 
Joseph de Maistre, de I'Eglise Gallicane (Migne, Paris) ; Desmarais, 
History des dcmcles de la cour de France avec Jansen. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 

565. Rise of Prussia. — During all the wars that had been 
devastating Europe, the house of Hohenzollern had been 
steadily rising in power and inthience. By the Treaty of 
Westphalia after the Thirty Years' War it had obtained part 
of Pomerania together with the bishoprics of Halberstadt, 
Minden, and Magdeburg, while by private contract it had se- 
cured certain territories in Cleves, Mark, and Ravensburg. 
Then, in 1697 it dexterously made use of the ambition of 
Charles X of Sweden to secure the independent possession of 
the Duchy of Prussia. Later on, during the wars of Louis 
XIV. it procured from the emperor as the price of its support 
the erection of Prussia into a kingdom (1701). 

Circumstances, no doubt, were partly responsible for this, 
but the Hohenzollern rulers were generally men of marked 
ability who knew how to profit by circumstances. There was 
Frederick \Mlliam, the Great Elector (1640-1688), who 
founded a firm tradition of a strong military policy. After 
him came, in 1688, his son, Frederick I, who acquired the 
title of king and who also deserves mention as being the 
founder of the L^niversity of Halle and of the Academies of 
Sculpture and Painting at Berlin. In 17 13, he was succeeded 
by his son Frederick William I. It was this king who made 
the Prussian armv the most efficient fighting machine in Eu- 
rope and who instituted the regiment of the Potsdam Guards, 
famous for the height of its soldiers. Of equal importance 
were his financial reforms, such as the improvement of the 
system of taxation and the foundation of what are now some 
of the richest manufactories of Prussia. 

385 



386 THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SrCCESSWN 

566. Frederick the Great. — In the year 1740 Frederick 
W^ilHam I died and was succeeded by his son Frederick II 
surnamed the Great. 

This monarch carried still further the financial improve- 
ments inaugurated by his father, and it is interestin.^ to note 

that he was the first 
who in any way 
dreamed of a Ger- 
man na\'al policy, 
insisting on the 
rights of free navi- 
gation for all his 
subjects. Frederick 
was also interested 
in law, ;uid his 
chancellor drew up 
the " Frederican 
Code of Laws," the 
object of which \vas 
to simplify legal pro- 
ceedings in the king- 
dom. He was also 
a man of consider- 
able French culture 
and wrote the mem- 
oirs of the " House 
o f Brandenburg," 
and other works with all the qualities of a good French style. 
But the most eventful aspect of Frederick the Great's reign 
was his policy of expansion, for this had direct and important 
influence on general European politics. 




iM-udtrick the Great. Born 1712; died 1786. 



567. The Pragmatic Sanction. — The reigning emperor of 
Austria was Charles VI. He had no male heirs but he was 



MARIA THERESA 387 

anxious that all his possessions should descend intact to his 
eldest daughter, Maria Theresa. Accordingly, before his 
death he procured the consent of most of the European Powers 
to the " Pragmatic Sanction " by which they guaranteed the 
succession of Maria Theresa to all his dominions. 

Charles died in 1740 but with the exception of the doubtful 
friendship of England not one of the guarantors proved in any 
way faithful to the contract. 

568. Coalition Against Austria. — Indeed, the same causes 
that prepared the way for the partition of Poland were present 
also in Austria. The treasury was depleted, the army in a 
weakened condition, while there was also a general want of 
cohesion between the different parts of the Austrian domin- 
ions. Moreover, the Austrian dominions, on account of their 
very extent, offered a tempting prize. In addition to Austria 
proper and Bohemia there were the Netherlands and certain 
states in Italy. 

b'rance was really the prime instigator of the coalition, but 
the Prussians gave the signal by invading Austrian Silesia, 
which they conquered by the battles of Mollwitz and Chotusitz. 
The European states then set their armies in motion. France, 
Spain, Saxony, and Bavaria, all attacked the Austrian pos- 
sessions at the most convenient points of assault. 

569. Maria Theresa, however, was a woman of spirit. 
When the French were at the very gates of Vienna she fled to 
Hungary and threw herself upon the loyalty and support of 
her Hungarian subjects. With their aid she speedily drove 
the French and Bavarians out of her hereditary dominions. 

England was called upon to be faithful to her duty by up- 
holding the Pragmatic Sanction. But a peace party was then 
in power. The leaders of this party advised Maria Theresa to 
buy off Frederick the Great by ceding to him Silesia, Maria 



EUROPE 





!■-? .• Tartar — ^-CsJJKyT c^^T 



"lo^t V \ 




""W-.. 



i'-^-iv 



A I 



•**««, 



LoQgituUe Ve 




( 



AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 389 

Theresa was bitterly chagrined at this lukewarmness in her 
favor, but circumstances compelled her to give way. She 
accordingly made with Frederick the treaty of Breslau (1742) 
by which she yielded to Frederick the greater part of Silesia. 
Perhaps some excuse may be made for the English ministers. 
They felt themselves obliged to uphold the Pragmatic Sanc- 
tion b}^ preventing the complete dismemberment of the Aus- 
trian Empire, but they did not feel obliged to prevent the 
loss to Austria of merely one or two provinces. 

570. The Second Silesian War was fought soon after this 
treaty. This time, Maria Theresa was aided by England, 
Saxony, and Sardinia. Frederick again entered the Austrian 
possessions at the head of an invading army and even suc- 
ceeded in taking Prague, the capital of Bohemia. This, how- 
ever, was the high water mark of his success. He soon had 
to evacuate the country altogether. In Italy, the /\ustrians 
won the battle of Piacenza (1746) against the French and 
the Spaniards. Elsewhere, the campaign was fought out with 
varying success. 

571. The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) at length termi- 
nated the War of the Austrian Succession. By the terms of 
this peace, the provisions of the Pragmatic Sanction were vir- 
tually carried out. Silesia, however, was left in the hands 
of Prussia and certain portions of the Milanese Territories 
were abandoned to Sardinia. These exceptions were the 
price that Austria had to pay in order to avoid more substan- 
tial losses. 

Although the actual status of the European territories re- 
mained the same, the altered significance of European politics 
demands attention. 

(a) Prussia by its seizure of Silesia had added to its 
boundaries and maintained its military reputation. But its 



/ 



390 THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 

unjust attack on the Austrian dominions created a tradition 
of bitter hostility between itself and Austria. 

(b) The kingdom of Sardinia now rises to a visible power 
and influence. The territory of the kingdom of Sardinia 
in the year 1720 comprised the Duchy of Savoy, Piedmont, 
Nice, Genoa, and the island of Sardinia. These possessions 
had been accumulated mainly by the skilful diplomacy of the 
dukes of Savoy. By siding now with one party, now with 
the other they generally secured something as a result of the 
strife of other powers. In 1720 Sardinia was added to their 
possessions and erected into a kingdom. And now by the 
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the rulers of the house of Savoy, 
were called the kings of Sardinia, and gained considerable 
portions of Milanese territories. 

572. Spain had shown during the war that she was grad- 
ually recovering from the miserable condition into which she 
had fallen during the years of Louis XIV. Under the able 
administration of the prime minister Alberoni and after him 
of Ripperda, the financial condition of the kingdom became 
improved, commerce revived, and the navy became rehabili- 
tated. More than this, Spain even sought to regain some of 
her lost possessions in Italy. Nor was she unsuccessful. 
Parma and Piacenza became Spanish possessions for a con- 
siderable period of time. 

573. France, on the other hand, showed that she had as 
yet hardly recovered from the shattering effects of the wars 
of Louis XIV. She had obtained nothing by taking part in 
the coalition against Austria. Moreover, Louis XV was an 
indolent, profligate monarch. The chief minister of the 
French court at this time was Cardinal Dubois, and after him, 
Cardinal Fleury. It was under the latter minister that France 
opposed the claims of Maria Theresa. 



GEORGE I 391 

574. Austria had emerged from the terrible struggle with 
some losses, but with considerable vitality. Moreover, the in- 
ternal administration of Maria Theresa had been very bene- 
ficial throughout the country. She established a general sys- 
tem of education supervised by a general council of studies; 
she improved the condition of the Bohemian serfs, promoted 
the interests of commerce by the construction of important 
canals, and instituted various judicial reforms. 

She also had the satisfaction of finding her husband Francis 
of Lorraine elected emperor, and Austria was still in the 
proud position of being a possible nucleus of a future united 
Germany. 

575. George I, on the death of Queen Anne (1714), as- 
cended the throne. He was a stolid German, and spoke not a 
word of English. The practical conduct of affairs was there- 
fore left entirely in the hands of his W hig ministers. 

The chief foreign policy of the ministers was to uphold the 
provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht. For this purpose, they 
formed with France and Holland the Triple Alliance of 171 7. 
In 1 7 18 Germany also became a partner and thus completed 
the Quadruple Alliance against the designs of Spain in Italy. 

576. Domestic Affairs. — With regard to the domestic his- 
tory of England, perhaps the most important event was the 
rise to power of Sir Robert \\^alpole who was the first to be 
called Prime Minister. The immediate cause of his promotion 
was the bursting of the South Sea Bubble. This was a bogus 
company in which almost every class of society had shares. 
When the crash came. Sir Robert Walpole joined the govern- 
ment, and made arrangements by which the country was helped 
through its ditftculties, and financial confidence was restored. 
In 1 71 5, he became prime minister and first lord of the treas- 
ury. 



392 THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 

577. George II. — George i. died in 1727 and was succeeded 
by his son George II. He was also a thorough German but he 
could speak English. 

We have already seen the part taken by England in the 
War of the Austrian Succession. In order to help Maria 
Theresa King George himself headed an English army on 
the continent and in 1743 won a victory over the French at 
Dettingen. But two years later, at Fontenoy in the Nether- 
lands, the Duke of Cumberland was defeated by the French. 
This French victory, the only (jne gained under Louis XV, 
prepared the way for the separation of the Netherlands from 
Austria and for their temporary absorption by France during 
the French Revolution. 

578. The Whig Party, during this period, dominated "Eng- 
lish politics at home. Owing to the connection and to the 
supposed sympathy between the Tories and the exiled house of 
Stuart, the opposition was placed in a position of discredit and 
of great weakness. On the other hand all the instruments 
of maintaining themselves in power were at the disposal of 
the Whig party. They could engineer the elections both in 
the towns and in the country, and they could also bribe with- 
out limit both in the matter of granting offices and even by 
direct sums of money. However, the Whig administration 
was beneficial. It tended on the whole in the direction of 
peace, and it promoted the commercial prosperity of the coun- 
try. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Rising power of the House of Hohenzollern - — Hohenzollern 
Rulers — ■■ Frederick II — Pragmatic Sanction —Weak condition 
of the Austrian Empire — Battles of Mollvitz and Chotusitz — 
Treaty of Breslau — Second Silesian war — Peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle — General condition of European politics — George I — 
England's foreign policy — England's domestic policy — Reign 
of George II — Dominance of the Whig party. 



REFEREXCES 393 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

TuTTLE, History of Prussia; Beagle, Correspondence hitherto unpub- 
lished between Maria Theresa and Frederick II; Longman. Frederick 
the Great; Carlyle, Frederick the Great; Bright, Maria Theresa; Whit- 
man, Austria; Reduaway, Frederick the Great and Rise of Prussia; 
Leger, History of Austro-Hungary ; York-Powell and Tout. History 
of England; Morley, Walpole; Coxe, Sir Robert Walpolc; Stanhope, 
History of England from Peace of Utrecht; Pastor, Side Lights on 
Georgian period; Cowper, Diary; Chestcriicld's Memoirs; Fournier, Originc 
dc la Pragmatiquc Sanction; Broglie, Studies on Frederick II and Maria 
Theresa; Mirabeau, On the Prussian Monarchy under Frederick II; 
Paganel, History of Frederick the Great; Wirgaud, Frederick dcr Grosse. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR; COLONIAL EXPANSION OF ENGLAND 

579. Causes of the Seven Years' War. — The War of the 

Austrian Succession contained within itself the germs of an- 
other war even wider and more momentous in character. 

Austria bitterly grudged the sacrifice of Silesia to Prussia. 
The action of Frederick was itself provokingly unjustifiable. 
But besides this, the loss of Silesia meant the loss of one of the 
German speaking provinces and one of the most valuable 
parts of the Empire. Austria had also a bitter grudge against 
England. \\'hile England had indeed done something to pre- 
vent a complete dismemberment of the Austrian Empire yet 
it was her supineness that had contributed to the loss of 
Silesia. 

On the other hand, the anger of France had been aroused 
against England. For it was England which had mainly op- 
posed the French scheme of partitioning Austria. But even 
this grievance paled in importance before the bitter rivalry 
between the English and French colonies nearly all over the 
world. 

580. Coalition Against Prussia. — The result was another 
war, another coalition and another attempt to partition a 
European nation. This time. Prussia was the intended vic- 
tim. Against her were ranged France, Austria. Saxony, and 
Russia. On the side of Prussia was England, which again 
found itself on the side of the oppressed, and it was partly to 
English help that Frederick II was indebted for the success- 
ful defense that he made against almost overwhelming odds 

Frederick II was not taken unawares. By private means, 

394 



WARS OF FREDERICK 395 

he had obtained full information of all his enemies' plans. 
His position was desperate and he saw that the only and the 
best defense was at once to strike hard and swift blows be- 
fore his enemies could slowly mature their plan and close in 
upon him. 

581. Invasion of Saxony. — He therefore began the war by 
invading Saxony (1756). His army was successful against 
an Austrian army that opposed him and he then marched 
southward into Bohemia where he gained a second and still 
more signal victory over the Austrians. After this, he laid 
siege to Prague, but the approach of Daun, the Austrian gen- 
eral, changed the course of the war. Frederick then made 
the fatal mistake of dividing his army, allowing one part to 
continue the siege and the other to engage Daun. The re- 
sult was a double failure. He was defeated at the battles of 
Kolin (1757) and he had to raise the siege of Prague. 

Just at this moment the gathering forces of his opponents 
began to threaten the different frontiers of his own domin- 
ions. 

582, The Odds Against Frederick. — In Hanover on the 
west, appeared the French who had just defeated an English 
army under the Duke of Cumberland ; on the north were ad- 
vancing the combined Russians and Swedes, and on the south 
was an army of French and Austrians. Frederick at once at- 
tacked the latter army and inflicted upon it a crushing defeat 
at Rossbach (1757). After this he marched into Silesia and 
after another crushing victory at Leuthen recaptured Breslau 
and the whole of Silesia from the Austrians. To make Fred- 
erick's position still better the Russians and Swedes retreated 
from Prussian territory and a new English army under the 
Duke of Brunswick appeared in Hanover, while the English 
government began to dole out to him liberal financial aid. 



396 THE SEVEN YEARS' II AK 

Frederick by the end of 1757, was thus still in a strong po- 
sition. But he had now to face even greater dangers. 
Hitherto he had crossed swords with the Austrians but now 
he had to face the Russians who seemed to have been of 
sterner metal. It was only with difficulty that he defeated the 
Russians at the battle of Zorndorf, 1758, and later on at the 
battle of Kunnersdorf, (1759), he himself was completely 
routed by the combined armies of the Russians and of the 
Austrians. To offset this reverse he had only the English 
victory over the French at the battle of Minden in Hanover. 
This victory had the effect of keeping the enemy away from 
the western borders of the Prussian kingdom. 

583. Peter III Joins Frederick. — Yet in 1761, the position 
of Frederick became critical. His kingdom was exhausted 
and it was becoming every day more difficult to hold up suc- 
cessfully against such a wide ring of foes. But fortunately 
at this juncture, affairs took a sudden and unexpected turn. 
The Empress Elizabeth of Russia his bitterest enemy died 
(1762), and was succeeded by Peter HI, an ardent admirer of 
Frederick. Russia at once withdrew from the contest and 
made a treaty of alliance with Frederick. Besides this, the 
ardor of the French considerably cooled, partly owing to se- 
vere defeats at the hand of the English, partly owing to want 
of support from Spain. 

Austria had thus to face Prussia single-handed and the war 
was necessarily brought to a speedy termination by the Treaty 
of Paris (1763). The provisions of this treaty mainly re- 
gard the settlement of the colonial rivalry between England 
and France. It will be necessary therefore to consider first of 
all the colonial aspect of the Seven Years' War. 

584. The Colonial Expansion of England. — Towards the 
end of the sixteenth centurv nearlv all the o-reat states of 



COXTIIST FOR C.lXAD.l AXD INDIA ^^jj 

Europe had colonial settlements. Spain had established her- 
self in a great part of South America and in the West Indies ; 
Portugal had appropriated Brazil and had started certain 
trading stations in India, while Holland began to enter as a 
successful rival in India and the Spice Islands. But in the 
sixteenth century the two most important and active coloniz- 
ing powers were England and France. Both of these powers 
had colonial settlements in Xorth America and in India and, 
less extensively, in Africa. 

\Mien the Treaty of Utrecht was signed in 1714 the exact 
extent of the English possessions was as follows: 

(a) In the Xew World. Hudson ?jay, Xewfoundland, Xova 
Scotia, and what now constitutes the Atlantic border of the 
United States as far south as Savannah. There were also the 
Bermudas, Jamaica, and Barbados. 

(b) In Africa; Gambia and the Isle of St. Helena. 

(c) In India: the Island of Bombay and certain trading 
stations. 

585. Contest for Canada and India. — The places where the 
English were successful rivals with the French were Canada 
and India. In 1754. began the real struggle between the 
French and the English for the possession of Canada. The 
h^rench attempted to establish communication by means of 
the Great Lakes and of the Mississippi River between Canada 
and Louisiana. This policy implied an intention to confine the 
English colonies to the strip of territory between the Atlantic 
sea-board and the Appalachian Mountains. 

In the struggle that ensued, the English were at first un- 
successful. General Braddock was inexperienced in guerrilla 
warfare and in attempting to capture Fort Duquesne (Pitts- 
burg) fell into an ambuscade of French and Indians. Not 
only was his army routed but he himself was mortally w^ounded 
(1755)- 



398 THE SFJ'EN YEARS' WAR 

586. The Fall of Quebec. — But in 1758 the superiority of 
the English began to make itself felt. The elder Pitt, one of 
the greatest English statesman, was then at the head of affairs 
and none knew better than he how to select capable officers. 
General Wolfe in 1758 was sent out as commander of the 
English army. His presence was signalized by the capture 
of the important fortress of Quebec. 

Another English general called Amherst, succeeded in tak- 
ing the important forts at 
Niagara and Ticonderoga. 
From all these different 
places, the English armies 
converged upon the city of 
Montreal and took it after 
a short siege. With the 
seizure of the great part of 
the enemy's stronghold, the 
English quickly completed 
the conquest of Canada. 

587. Affairs in India. — 
We must now consider the 
colonial rivalry between the 
English and the French in 
quite another part of the 
world. Up to within a few years of this time, India had been 
ruled by a succession of emperors belonging to the Mogul 
dynasty. The founder of this dynasty was popularly sup- 
posed to be Baber, a potentate who flourished in the sixteenth 
century, but Baber himself claimed descent from Timour the 
Tartar who lived in the fourteenth century. 

The centralized rule of the Great Moguls as the English 
called them, had now began to decline. The different princes 
of the provinces were asserting their own local independence, 




William Pitt, Earl of Chatham. Born 
1708; died 1778. Prime Minister of 
England 1783 to 1801, and from 1804 
to 1808. 



ROBERT CLIVE 399 

and the authority of the emperor was ahnost as shadowy and 
unsubstantial as that of the later Carolingian monarchs. 

Besides these internal elements of disintegration, there were 
also foreign trading settlements chiefly along the coast line 
of the empire. On the western coast, the Portuguese had es- 
tablished the colony of Goa; on the eastern coast, the French 
had established themselves at Hoogli and at Pondicherry; 
finally, the English were in possession of the village of Bom- 
bay on the extreme northwestern coast, Fort St. George in 
Madras, and a trading settlement at Calcutta in Bengal on 
the extreme northeast coast. 

The French seem to have made the most progress. The 
East India Company that had been formed under Richelieu 
had received especial patronage under Colbert, while Du- 
pleix, the governor of Pondicherry, was an able man and full 
of ambition to promote his country's interests. 

588. The Appearance of Robert Clive. — An opportunity 
soon presented itself in the disputes of the native tribes. The 
French backed up some of the tribes against the other and 
by drilling the natives and supplying them with instruments of 
modern warfare hoped to secure complete ascendancy over 
India. Such a policy, however, forced the English to take 
up the cause of the tribes that were attacked by the French. 
The early point of the campaign went against the English. 
Their siege of Pondicherry failed and even Trichinopoli in 
Madras was in imminent danger. But Robert Clive, a dash- 
ing young English soldier, saved the situation. He abandoned 
a purely defensive method of warfare and assumed the aggres- 
sive. He took (1751) the city of Arcot in the Carnatic and 
held it successfully against powerful odds. 

Almost at once the French power began to decline. Du- 
pleix had to retire to France in disgrace and the whole of the 
Carnatic fell under English rule, 



400 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR 

589. The Conquest of Bengal. — The next step in the es- 
tablishment of the Enghsh empire in India was the conquest 
of Bengal. Surajah-Dowlah was then the Nabob of Bengal. 
He was a man of savage cruelty but it was greed that lead 
him to attack the EngHsh settlement at Fort William (Cal- 
cutta) (1756). He succeeded. And in the hour of his tri- 
umph one hundred 
and forty-six pris- 
oners were confined 
in a small room onl}- 
twenty feet square 
and with only two 
small gratings for 
ventilation. For 
only one night were 
the prisoners im 
mersed in this den. 
but the heat of an 
Indian summer did 
its wcork and on the 
morning only twen- 
ty-three persons had 
survived. 

This massacre 
roused Clive to put 
forth his best ener- 
gies. He marched into the heart of Bengal and inflicted upon 
the enemy an overwhelming defeat at the battle of Plassey 
(1757). This victory placed the English in possession of 
Bengal and it, together with the victory at Wondernash in 
southern India by Colonel Coote practically determined that 
the English and not the French were to be the rulers of India. 

590. The Treaty of Paris (1763) put an end both to the 
Seven Years' War on the Continent and to the colonial war 




Robert Clive. Born 1725; died i;74. 



TREATY OF PARIS 401 

between the English and the French. The terms of tlie treaty 
were as follows : 

(a) In America, England obtained Canada and Cape 
Breton and was confirmed in the possession of Nova Scotia, 
while the Mississippi was to be the boundary between the Eng- 
lish colonies and Louisiana. In the West Indies, a mutual 
interchange of territories took place between England and 
France. In India, England was obliged to restore her con- 
quests since 1749, but obtained the concession that the French 
troops should evacuate India and that there should be no 
French fortifications. England also obtained Senegal in 
western Africa, and the Island of Minorca in the Mediter- 
ranean. 

(b) Spain also entered into this treaty. She obtained Ha- 
vana from England but in return gave to England the pos- 
session of Florida. 

Though this treaty profoundly disappointed the war party 
in England, it marked the foundation of the great British 
colonial empire of to-day. England had succeeded in a task 
in which other nations of Europe had failed or at least had 
fallen short of achievement. Spain had failed through want 
of sufficient revenue and the weakening and deterioration of 
the government at home ; France had failed because she treated 
her colonies as purely political appendages and had allowed 
the local officials too little liberty of action. But England 
had succeeded because she allowed full liberty of action to 
wisely chosen officials and generals, and more than all. through 
her justice and fair play toward the natives, and through her 
fearless and dogged perseverance which overcame all obsta- 
cles. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Causes of the Seven Years' War — Frederick II takes the 
aggressive — Battles of Kolin, Rossback, Leuthen, Zorndorf — 
Russia withdraws from the war — Treaty of Paris — Greater 
Europe — English possessions in 1713 — War in Canada between 



402 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR 

English and French — English success in Canada — War be- 
tween English and French in India — The Great Moguls — Eu- 
ropean settlements in India — Success of the English under 
Clive — English conquest of Bengal — Treaty of Paris. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Brackenbury, Frederick the Great; Tuttle, Prussia; Macaulay, Es- 
say on Frederick the Great; Henderson, History of Germany; Seelev, 
Expansion of England; Leckey, History of England in the Eighteenth 
Century; Gibbins, History of Commerce in Europe; Parkman, Mont- 
calm and Wolfe; Malleson, Clive; Egerton, Short History of British 
Colonial Policy; Mahan, Influence of Sea Poner on History; Lyall, 
Rise of the British Dominion in India; Warmer, Landmarks of English 
Industrial History; Flux, Building of the British Empire; Correspond- 
ence between Choiseul and Bernin; Frederick II, Political correspondence; 
Lord Nathan's Correspondence; Napoleon's precis des guerres de Fred. 
II; Grant Duff, Hist, of Mahratl'as; Troller, Life of Hastings; Roger's 
journal of French War; Sparks, Diplomatic correspondence of American 
Revolutionists; Doniol, Participation of France in formation of United 
States; Sparks, Washington's Correspondence; Sabine, American Royal- 
ists in War of Am. Rev. 



I 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

THE RISE OF RUSSIA AND THE PARTITION OF POLAND 

591. Ivan IV; the Romanoffs. — Already, during the reign 
of Queen Elizabeth of England, Russia had shown signs of 
rising from the sleep of barbaric ages. Ivan IV was then 
ruler. During his reign a code of laws was promulgated and 
a regular army was formed. Communication was also opened 
up between Russia and the western world. English ships 
now made their appearance in the port of Archangel and 
Russia w-arred, though unsuccessfully, with Sweden and Po- 
land for the possession of Livonia on the Baltic coast. 

In 161 3, Michael Romanoff ascended the throne and founded 
the dynasty named after him. From this time, Russia be- 
gins to take her place among the European states. Not only 
(lid trade with England and France undergo great develop- 
ments but foreigners began to settle in Russia disseminating a 
knowledge of western ideas and principles. 

592. Peter the Great. — The most distinguished member of 
the Romanoff dynasty was Peter the Great, who ascended the 
throne in 1689. 

A painter would have great difficulty in making a portrait 
of Peter the Great. He was a man of violent and extraor- 
dinary contrasts. He was half a savage and yet he had an 
extraordinary leaning towards the best and highest forms of 
western civilization. 

Perhaps the most singular feature about Peter was his 
mental and moral isolation in his own kingdom. He was 
centuries ahead of the thought and temperament of his own. 
times. 

403 



404 RISE OF RUSSIA AND PARTITION OF POLAND 

If we judge him by comparison with the people he gov- 
erned, Peter must be considered one of the most creative char- 
acters that the world has seen. His powers of assimilation and 
construction w-ere elastic, his genius profound and original, 
and above all, his resolution unshaken and undomitable. The 
reforms that were thrust upon Russia during the reign of 

Peter were as yet far too 
sudden for its willing ac- 
ceptance, but the iron will of 
Peter ruthlessly dragged the 
whole nation after him and 
made it walk in the way of 
the western nations. 

In some respects the prog- 
ress of Russia under Peter 
may be compared to the 
progress of Japan at the 
present day. But it must be 
remembered that in Japan 
the chang'e has been grad- 
ual, whereas in Russia it 
, ^ „ . ,. , was violent and abrupt. 

Peter the Great. Born 167J; died 172;. '^ 




593. Peter's Travels in Europe. — When a boy, Peter de- 
termined to make himself acquainted by travel and experience 
with European civilization. This resolution marked the char- 
acter of the man. For tra\'el was considered by the Russians 
of those times as a crime. 

Between 1697 ^"*^ 1698 Peter traveled over the greater part 
of Europe. He spent the most time in England and Holland. 
There, he made himself thoroughly acquainted with the prin- 
ciples of science and of art. But his main interest seems to 
have been ship-building. In Holland, he put on working 
man's clothes and worked in a ship-yard near Amsterdam. 



REFORMS IX RCSS/.l 405 

In England also he worked in the dock-yards at Depford. 
Most of our information of Peter's sojourn in England is 
derived from the English newspapers of that period, from 
which it appears that he made a good impression on all with 
whom he came in contact. 

After two years residence among western peoples, Peter re- 
turned, full}' equipped fm- his arduous task. 

594. Peter's Reforms in Russia. — He at once attempted 
to introduce into Russia western ideas and customs. The 
old fashioned oriental robe was now got rid of and even the 
long beard began to disappear. To the Russians the habit of 
smoking had always been an atomination but now the long 
pipe actually made its appearance in the precincts of a Russian 
court. 

Before Peter's time women had been kept in absolute se- 
clusion and never allowed to appear in public save with a long 
A'eil o\'er the face, while the two sexes even at the court were 
never supposed to meet together in social assemblies. But 
now all this was done away with and the Russian woman 
began to assume the status of her western neighbor. 

To abolish successfully deeply rooted habits of fashion is 
in itself a most heroic achie\'ement ; after this, therefore, we 
need not wonder if Peter succeeded in things still more im- 
portant. Knowledge, art, and culture were introduced. 
Printing presses were set up in different parts of the empire, 
and libraries established. The Russian library is an anomaly 
even to this day. Nearly every village has its own library 
and classical works can be obtained at a reasonable cost. 
Peter also established the first newspaper in Russia and even 
planned a learned academy. 

Peter also changed the social divisions of Russia. In his 
Table of Ranks he classed all the people according to their dif- 
ferent occupations. The rank of the nobleman was now made 



4o6 R^^E OF RUSSIA AND PARTITION OF POLAND 

to depend not upon mere blood but upon service of distinction 
rendered to the state by the person himself or by one of his 
ancestors. 

595. Changes in the Church. — Peter even made a radical 

change in the condition of the Russian church. In this he was 
aided by Feofan. who though not an orthodox Cr'holic had 
been educated in a Jesuit college. Peter strongly disliked the 
subordinate position that he occupied in the Russian church. 
He determined therefore to reverse the position and to make 
the Russian church subordinate to himself. A snyod for 
ecclesiastical affairs was erected and the highest office of this 
was the procurator who was directly nominated by the em- 
peror. 

596. Administrative Reforms. — Finally certain political 
changes were made that facilitated the expansion of imperial 
authority throughout the domains. Hitherto the only other 
element in the central administration of the state was the 
council of boyars who were the highest class of Russian offi- 
cials. These were now allowed to die out and in their place 
was established a senate composed of ministers of the em- 
peror's choice. 

From this it will be easily seen that the aim of Peter was 
to introduce not only western usages, but also the elements of 
western royal despotism. We may now consider the foreign 
policy of Peter. 

The great city of St. Petersburg founded by him as the new 
capital of Russia sufficiently illustrates the great purpose of 
his life. Situated at the mouth of the Neva, and near the 
coast, it was to be the open entrance through which Russia 
was to assert her influence in the theater of European politics. 
To obtain this object his purpose was to make Russia one of 
the Baltic powers. 



CHARLES XII 407 

597. War With Sweden. — It was this ambition that 
brought him into colHsion with Sweden. The king of Sweden 
at this time was Charles XII, a young man of considerable 
military ability. Charles was still in possession of the dis- 
tricts along the south shore of the Baltic and it was these very 
lands that were the object of Peter's desire. At the battle of 
Narwa (1700), the Swedes and the Russians crossed arms. 
The well-fed and well-disciplined Swedes quickly defeated 
the ill-disciplined and half-famished Russians. Peter the 
Great was compelled to retire. 

The method of his retirement however signally illustrates 
what has always been up to now the characteristic trait of 
Russian policy. Instead of abandoning his design, Peter only 
waited. 

Had Charles XII of Sweden followed up his victory by an 
advance upon Russia matters might have been more serious. 
But Charles chose instead to invade Poland and this gave 
Peter time to recover from defeat and to form a stronger and 
better disciplined army. 

598. Charles XII Invades Russia. — A few years after- 
wards, Charles XII in the height of his glory entered with an 
invading army into the very heart of Russia. Peter adopted 
the same plan of defense that was used a hundred years later 
against the French. He avoided for the present a pitched 
battle but harassed the enemy by cutting down bridges, ob- 
structing the fords and esf>ecially by wasting the country and 
so cutting off the enemy's supplies. At length amid most 
luifavorable circumstances for the Swedes, was fought in 1709 
the battle of Pultowa. The results of the battle were the 
rapid decline ofSweden from her accidental position as a 
great northern power, and the rapid ascendency of Russia. 

599. Treaty of Nystadt. — The war still lingered on and 
was not really terminated until the celebrated Treaty of Ny- 



408 RISE OF [RUSSIA AND PARTITION OF POLAND 

stadt (1/21). By this treaty I'eter obtained the Baltic prov- 
inces of Ingria. Esthonia. and Livonia, which thus made Rus- 
sia what she wanted to be, the prominent power on the Baltic. 
After this, Peter exchanged his title of czar for emperor and 
autocrat of all the Russias — a title which only lately has been 
abrogated by the new constitutional government given to 
Russia. 

Peter the Great died shortly after this treaty. He will al- 
ways be remembered for the reforms that he effected in Russia 
and for having made Russia one of the great European powers. 

600. Catharine II. — His work was continued and perhaps 
still more effectively by Catherine H (1762). She organized 
the political system, improved the condition of the serfs, and 
promoted education by establishing everywhere colleges and 
schools of a high order. She held intimate communications 
with the most learned men of Europe ; whose services she used 
for the good of the empire. Especially famous was her cor- 
respondence with Voltaire, the great French philosopher. 

She also promoted the interests of trade. Many canals 
were constructed, among them being one that connected the 
Caspian with the White Sea. Under her auspices also numer- 
ous towns, banks, docks, and arsenals were brought into exist- 
ence. Catherine succeeded in exj^anding the Russian territory. 
Her conquest of Crimea in the south gave Russia complete 
control over the Black Sea. But the most important acquisi- 
tion was the large share that she obtained in the division of 
Poland. 

601. Condition of Poland. — Poland by this time had fallen 
into a very precarious condition. Its government was in a 
state of chronic anarchy. The nobles could impose any con- 
ditions upon the king of their choice while the power of the 
assembly was nullified by the absurd provision that the veto 



PARTITION OF POLAND 409 

of any single nobleman could invalidate its decisions. There 
was also anarchy from the religious point of view. For there 
were constant troubles between the ascendant Catholics and 
the Dissenters who in the western districts were Protestants, 
and in the East, members of the (ireek Church. 

Together with this tempting weakness of Poland there were 
reasons that made the possession of some of the Polish terri- 
tories particularly desirable to other European nations. Rus- 
sia found that the possession of Polish territories in the East 
would considerably strengthen her frontier. Prussia was nat- 
urally aspiring" to the western part of Poland, which would give 
her com])lete control of the Vistula ; Austria's desire for the 
Southern provinces of Poland followed from the necessity of 
having a set-ofif against Russian advances in case any partition 
of Poland were made. 

602. First Partition of Poland. — All these circumstances 
combined to bring about the first partition of Poland in 1772. 
Russia took part of Lithuania, Prussia took the province 
called West Prussia, Austria occupied Polish territory in the 
south including Red Russia. 

603. Second Partition. — About two-thirds of Poland still 
remained but even now there still continued the old system of 
strife and anarchy, and the consequence was the second parti- 
tion of Poland in 1793. This time Austria had no share of 
the spoils. But Russia and Prussia added considerably to 
what they had already acquired, Russia acquiring the whole 
of Lithuania, while Prussia obtained the important towns of 
Posen, Gnesen and Danzig. It was on the occasion of this 
second partition that the Polish patriot, Kosciusko, tried to 
lead the Poles against the Russians. But he was defeated and 
taken prisoner. His memory will be interesting to Americans 
since he fought on their side during the revolutionary wars. 



4IO RISE OF RUSSIA AND PARTITION OF POLAND 

604. Third Partition of Poland. — In 1795 there took place 
the third and final partition of Poland. On this occasion. 
Russia, Prussia, and Austria shared in the spoils. Russia and 
Prussia each extended their possessions till they met and took 
in* what had hitherto been left of Poland, while Austria ob- 
tained Gallicia, this time as a counterbalance to the growing 
power of Prussia. 

605. Present Condition of Poland. — Poland had thus 
ceased to exist as a separate nation. But she died a hard 
death. Even at the present day both Russia and Germany 
are endeavoring to crush out the old national spirit in their 
Polish dominions. But their attempts seem unavailing, and 
the Poles still successfully maintain their racial identity, their 
religious traditions, and even their language. 

However, the possession of the Polish provinces enabled 
Russia to interfere still more effectively in the affairs of Eu- 
rope. And as we shall see in treating of the wars of Napo- 
leon, they enabled Russia to play an important part first on the 
side of and then against Napoleon. More than this Russia's 
successful acquisitions had given her a tradition of territorial 
expansion from which she had never departed until her hu- 
miliating defeat in the far East at the hands of the rising 
power of Japan. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Ivan I and beginnings of Russian trade — Michael Roman- 
off — Character of Peter the Great — Peter's reforms in Russia 

— His patronage of letters — Changes made in the political 
status of the Russian church — The Boyars replaced by the Sen- 
ate — Peter's foreign policy — Wars between Russia and Sweden 

— Charles XII's invasion of Russia — Treaty of Nystadt — 
Catharine II — Catharine IPs foreign policy — Condition of 
Poland — Causes of the general desire to partition Poland -7- 
First Partition of Poland — Second Partition of Poland — Third 
Partition of Poland — Present condition of the Polish Provinces. 



REFERENCES 411 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Rambaud, Russia; Schuyler, Peter the Great; Hassall, Balance of 
Power; Waliszewski, Life of Peter the Great; Bain, Charles XII; 
Motley, Peter the Great; Morfill, Story of Poland; Skrine, Exf>ansion 
of Russia; Oderfield, Military History; Wyne, Condition of Sweden un- 
der Charles XII; Martens, Recueil des Traites et Conventions dc hi 
Russe ; Prince Boris Kouraine, Voyage in Europe of a great Personage ; 
Memoirs of private persons in different countries as Kcmpfer in Holland 
and the French Jesuit Philip d'Avril; Grote, Peter the Great; Kraszen- 
iSKi, Poland and the Three Partitions; Schmitt, History of Poland in 
XVIII and XIX Centuries; Rousseau, sur la Constitution de Polognc; 
Correspondence between Frederick the Great and Catharine II. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

Causes of the French Revolution 

606. Revolutionary Theories. — We have seen how Eng- 
land \ictoriously held the hrst place in the great colonial move- 
ments of the sixteenth centnry. It was England's privilege 
to lead the way in other and still more important movements. 
Already, in the reign of Charles II of England some philoso- 
phers like Hobbes broached the doctrine of the social con- 
tract in which they affirmed that society is the resnlt of an 
artificial contract between the rulers and the governed. The 
natural consequences of this doctrine were inevitable and im- 
mediate. The rulers of the state Wfjuld derive authority only 
from the consent of the people and these same people, when 
convenient could dethrone those whom they have placed in 
power. 

Such doctrines did not perish in the air. Like seeds, they 
were wafted over to the countries of Europe. There they 
slowly spread and after sinking right down to the lowest 
strata of society brought forth tangible results of the most 
momentous character. All during the thrilling horrors and 
excitement of French Revolution, nothing can be more illus- 
trative of the power of abstract philosophical ideas than the 
way in which all branches of society discussed these difficult 
doctrines of the social compact and its consequences. 

607. French Political Philosophers. — In France the doc- 
trines were destined to produce more violent and more far- 
reaching effects than in any other country. The French 

412 



VOLTAIRE AND ROUSSEAU 



413 



writers who were mainly instrumental in presenting these doc- 
trines to the people were Voltaire. Rousseau, and Montes- 
quieu. 

Voltaire's system of philosophy was essentially destructive. 
He opposed to tradition the force of human reason. The 
most hallowed beliefs and the most sacred institutions were 
not safe from his critical mind and his power of ridicule. 
The theory of Voltaire was purely destructive; but he was 
too much a frequenter of aristocratic society, too much of a 
diner-out to be dangerous. 
In fact the friendship of 
Voltaire with the despot 
Frederick II of Prussia 
shows that his revolution- 
ary tendencies were purely 
in the field of academic dis- 
cussion. 

Rousseau, on the other 
hand, was more uncompro- 
mising and more inclined 
to push principles to their 
practical and logical conclu- 
sion. At the same time, he 
was more conservative and 
more constructive in his 
method. 

Montesquieu was a great student of the liberty enjoyed 
under the constitutional monarchy of England. Although he 
misunderstood in some respect the working of the English 
constitution, his writings called attention both in France and 
in America to the most important principles that underlie good 
government. It is through Montesquieu that America and 
some European states have imitated in their constitution the 
English parliamentary system. 




Voltaire. 



414 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

608. Political causes of the Revolution. — There were three 
estates in France, the clergy, the nobility, and the third estate, 
which comprised all that did not belong to the two upper 
estates. The whole monopoly of power and privilege was 
lodged with the upper estates. 

In medieval times, the lord or the baron, while receiving 
the feudal dues from his tenants at least did something in 
return. He performed a great part of the administrative and 
judicial work of the district in which he lived. But now he 
had become an idle drone, still receiving, but doing nothing 
in return. 

Moreover, these nobles had no longer the grand old tradi- 
tions of the ancient feudal aristocracy. Many of them were 
mere upstarts who had all the pride and arrogance of a noble 
without any glorious family tradition and ennobling influence. 

It was the intendants or local officials who now handled 
the executive machinery. These intendants were so many 
despots. Under their rule the people had no initiative what- 
ever. 

609. The Parlements in France were quite unlike the 
English parliament. They were merely law courts. The 
Parlement of Paris in a formal capacity did exercise some 
political influence. The king's edicts in order to be valid had 
to be registered by the Parlement. If Parlement refused, 
then the king could appear in person and the Parlement would 
be obliged to register his edict even against its own will. 

It is true that the Parlement was thus helpless in the king's 
hands. But the attitude of Parlement provoked discussion 
and aroused that public opinion which was so important an 
element in the Revolution. 

610. Other elements also roused the third estate to the 
consciousness of their exclusion from power and of their be- 



ECONOMIC CAUSES 415 

ing at the mercy of the king and the intendants. These stimu- 
lants were the salons or drawing rooms of Paris, the cafes 
where men would discuss the questions of the hour, the news- 
papers that at first indirectly, then openly organized and made 
public opinion. 

We might sum up the political causes of the Revolution by 
saying that they were, first, the exclusion of the Third Estate 
from all political power, and. secondly, the growing conscious- 
ness of that exclusion. 

611. Economic Causes of the Revolution. — At the time of 
Louis XIV\ the economic system of what was called the mer- 
cantile school of economists had been adopted. This system 
meant heavy duties on all imported goods in order to give a 
better home market to the nati\e producer; it meant en- 
couraging native industries by such artificial means as boun- 
ties and monopolies, and it involved a system of continual 
state interference with trade. At first, this system was suc- 
cessful, but afterward bad results flowed from it. Trade was 
prevented from following its natural laws and much distress 
was occasioned. A new school of economists soon rose whose 
tenets were quite opposed to those of the school represented 
by Colbert. The chief exponents of this new school were 
such men as Turgot and Necker in France and Adam Smith 
in England. These writers advocated a system of laisscc- 
fairc, which means that the king should not interfere with the 
natural course of trade and business. The motto of these 
men was free trade, and unlike the mercantilists they re- 
garded agriculture as the producer of wealth. 

This school of economists evidently was opposed to the 
personal despotism of the king. 

Economic views though apparently of an abstract nature 
had a very real interest for the people on account of the bad 
economic condition of the country. 



4iC> Jih'.t or Tin-: I'Riixcii rei'Dlutiom 

612. Internal Trade. — In spite of the centralized power 
of the king. France at that time could hardly be considered 
a single state. Each of the provinces of France had its own 
code of laws. And what perhaps was worse, each province 
was commercially cut off from the rest. There was thus no 
free trade even inside the kingdom itself. Merchandise pass- 
ing from one pro\ince to another had to pay duty. This 
of course meant not only a loss to buyer and seller but also 
the expense of maintaining a large body of customs officials. 

613. Taxation Laws. — Besides being subjected to all 
these restrictions on trade the working people were ground 
down by heavy taxation. There was direct taxation levied 
upon the person \\'ho is supposed to bear the burden and there 
was indirect taxation levied upon persons who are supposed to 
indemnify themselves at the expense of others. In France 
the chief direct taxes were the taille and the corvee. The 
taille was a tax le\^ied upon a district which was assessed 
according to its supposed wealth, and the corvee was compul- 
sory labor upon the people for the repairing and construction 
of roads. Of the indirect taxes, the most burdensome of all 
was the gabelle, or tax on salt. The tax in itself was a se- 
rious burden and was made still more so by its inequality, 
some districts having to pay thirty times as much as others. 
Similar taxes were levied on many other objects of merchan- 
dise such as flour, candles, etc. 

614. Inequality of Taxation. — Another very aggravating 
circumstance was that the clergy and the nobility were ex- 
empted from paying the taille and corvee. Thus, the main 
burden fell upon those who were the chief producers of the 
material wealth of the country. 

Besides taxation, the French serf had also to pay heavy 
feudal dues to his lord. For example, the serf had to help 



RELIGIOUS CAUSES 417 

in the harvest field and to grind corn at his lord's mill. And 
the lord as we have said did nothing in return, but like the 
absentee Irish landlord spent most of his time and money in 
the capital. However, from this point of view the condition 
of the serf was not so bad as in certain other countries. In 
Prussia, for example, the peasant had to work on his lord's 
estate three whole days in the week. 

We might sum up the economic causes of the Revolution 
by saying that they were, (a) Economic principles of liberal- 
izing tendencies, (b) bad economic administration, (c) ex- 
cessive taxation combined with the obnoxious burdens of the 
old feudal system. 

615. Religious Causes of the Revolution. — The great 

wealth of the clergy, which had contributed to the Reforma- 
tion in England, was also a prominent factor in the French 
Revolution. No less than one-fifth of the entire revenues of 
the state went into the pockets of the clergy, and at the same 
time they failed to pay their just share of the taxes. Their 
enormous wealth therefore paid nothing to the state. 

616. Misuse of the Wealth of the Church. — Moreover, 
there were great abuses in the administration of the wealth 
of the Church. Sums of money that had been left for char- 
itable purposes were not always wisely applied. No less than 
seventy per cent, of the monasteries were commendams, that 
is to say, their revenues were administered by persons not 
spiritually qualified. 

Above all, there was the enormous disproportion between 
the salaries of the upper and of the lower clergy. The upper 
clergy absorbed no less than five-sixths of the entire eccle- 
siastical revenues, while the lower clergy who did the work 
and who were spiritually the fittest, lived on a bare subsist- 



4l8 ERA OF THE FRENCH REI'OLVTION 

617. The Spirit of Irreligion. — Besides the enormous 
wealth of the Church badly administered there was the wide- 
spread spirit of irreligion and scepticism. The most frightful 
immorality had prevailed in the court of Louis X\^ and in 
all classes of society there was a fearful gap between the pro- 
fession of faith and its practice. By degrees faith itself be- 
came somewhat weakened, and the outward ceremonies of 
religion became too often reduced to a mere mockery. 

Even amongst ecclesiastics of high rank there were grave 
abuses. Cardinals, and bishops managed to insinuate them- 
selves into the court and into high offices, and their last 
thoughts were of the flocks committed to their charge. Types 
of such men were Cardinal Rohan, and Talleyrand the bishop 
of Autun. 

Yet there were some, who, like the pious Labat and the 
famous orator Neuville, bewailed the evils of the times, and 
strove to counteract the effects of the rationalistic writings of 
such men as Rousseau and pointed out the danger that men- 
aced throne and altar. Among the ranks of the lower clergy 
especially, were many men leading pious and zealous lives, 
who strove to bring up their people in the principles of re- 
ligion. 

Eve of the Revolution 

618. Reforms under Louis XVL — France was in this con- 
dition of misery and discontentWhen Louis XVL ascended 
the throne (1774). Louis XVL was a better man than his 
predecessor. He was upright in character and wished to 
redress the crying evils of the nation, but he was destitute of 
genius and wanting in resolution. 

619. Turgot was his minister, an honest man and an ardent 
exponent of the economic views of the new school. Under 
his administration attempts were made to lessen the most 



NECKER AND CALONNE 419 

grievous of the economic evils. Taxes were equalized and 
feudal exactions abolished, a uniform code of civil law was 
established and the criminal code was greatly improved. 

Unfortunately, these and other salutary reforms were 
stoutly opposed by the privileged classes. So great was the 
opposition that Louis gave way and Turgot went into retire- 
ment. 

620. Necker then became minister. He was a Genevese 
banker, and was ^\•ell acquainted with the principles of finance. 

He had need of all his ability. The treasury had fallen 
into a calamitous condition, and just at this time France 
though a luonarchy, declared war against England in sup- 
port of the revolting American colonies. Fresh supplies of 
money were therefore urgently needed both to meet ordinary 
wants and to cope with the additional expense entailed by the 
war. 

Necker continued some of the reforms of Turgot by making 
a more equitable assessment of the taxes and by practicing the 
strictest economy. His reputation as a banker gave him credit 
and he was able to borrow money at a low rate of interest. 

The later reforms of Necker, however, drew upon him the 
same unpopularity that \-isited his predecessor. Especially 
distasteful to the official classes was his doing away with the 
system of farming out taxes as also was his attempt to trans- 
fer to provincial representative assemblies functions hitherto 
exercised by the intendants. 

621. Calonne. — In 1781, took place the downfall of 
Necker. He was succeeded for a short time by Calonne, 
inider whose extravagant administration and want of ability 
the kingdom was reduced to the very verge uf bankruptcy. 

At last, the king in despair turned again to Necker ( 1788). 
and Necker's first advice was to assemble together the States- 
General. 



420 RRA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

622. Meeting of the States-General. — When the States- 
General met, certain very important points of procedure had 
to be settled. Hitherto, the three orders of the Clergy, the 
Nobility, and the Third Estate had met separately for pur- 
ix)ses of discussion, and the votes were taken by order. This 
meant that the will of the two upper orders must always neces- 
sarily prevail over that of the Third Estate. To this the mem- 
bers of the Third Estate strongly objected. They invited the 
Clergy and Nobles to assist in the common deliberations and 
insisted that the votes should be counted by heads. The 
great majority of the two upper Estates refused these de- 
mands, but some of the lower clergy consented and joined the 
Third Estate. 

623. The Third Estate Supreme. — On the 17th day of 
June, the Third Estate at the suggestion of the Abbe Sieyes 
assumed the name of national assembly and began to legislate 
in complete disregard of the other two Estates. This was 
the first step that could be called distinctly revolutionary. 
It implied a complete upsetting of the old constitution and 
now there took place in rapid succession the several acts of 
that terrible drama that ended in the execution of Louis XVI, 
the Reign of Terror, and the formation of the French Re- 
public. 

The Revolution 

624. The National Assembly. — France from this moment 
passes under various forms of government which succeeded 
one another in a natural order and with very close connection. 

The National Assembly that had been once merely the 
Third Estate began in 1789 and ended in 1791. During this 
period, it prepared a new constitution. In 1791, the National 
Assembly having then completed its work resigned and gave 
place to the Legislative Assembly, the governing body of the 



NATIONAL ASSEMBLY 42 L 

new constitution. The king was still recognized as a limited 
monarch. In 1792, it was decided to set up a republic. So 
the Legislative Assembly gave place to a Convention of dele- 
gates elected by the people in order to frame a new system of 
government. In 1793, the Convention was found to be a 
slow and unwieldy body for the business that had to be done, 
so a Committee of Public Safety was formed, which monopo- 
lized all the practical work of government until 1795. The 
Con^•ention and the Committee of Public Safety then dis- 
solved and the constitution of the year III remained in force 
till 1799. At this date, France practically ceases to be a 
republic and is in effect an empire ruled by Napoleon. 

We will now consider briefly the progress of events under 
these successive phases of government. 

The Nafional Assembly (i 789-1 791) 

625. Fall of the Bastile. — When the central government 
of the kingdom had thus undergone an alteration by the revo- 
lutionary act of the Third Estate, Paris soon began to follow 
the example. The ancient fortress of the Bastile, the symbol 
and monument of the old despotism was taken by storm and 
its prisoners released. 

Shortly after this, a new municipal government was formed 
in Paris. This consisted of a mayor chosen from among 
the ranks of the National Assembly, and a city council con- 
sisting of members of the middle class, such as the bankers, 
merchants, and members of the lay profession. The first 
stej) taken by this Commune as it was called, was to organize 
a city militia for the preservation of order in the city. It 
was called the National Guard, and was an armed force at 
the disposal of the revolutionary leaders. It may be com- 
pared perhaps with the parliamentary Trained Bands of Lon- 
don at the time of Charles I. 



422 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

626. Reforms of the Nationzil Assembly. — News of the 

ex'ents in Paris soon spread throughout the country and caused 
violent agitation. So serious were the disorders that arose 
that the National Assembly had to issue a series of reforms. 
All the old feudal dues and corvees were abolished, the guilds 
and exclusive corporations in the town were dissolved, pay- 
ment of taxes was made obligatory on all, and offices and 




The fall of the Bastile. 



dignitaries were eclared open to all without distinction. In 
order to complete the work of Turgot in bringing France 
together, the Assembly also did away with the old provinces 
and divided the kingdom anew into artificial divisions called 
Departments which were to have one common law and one 
common system of taxation. 

627. The Royal Family Brought to Paris. — These re- 
forms, however, like the free constitution granted by the Czar 



THE ASSIGN ATS 423 

to the Russian people failed to pacify. Insurrections broke 
out. A mob of several thousand went to the palace of Ver- 
sailles, and brought with them to Paris the king, the queen 
and the dauphin. 

The remo\al of the king to the capital occasioned also a 
similar step on the part of the National Assembly. This also 
moved to Paris and held its meetings in a riding school near 
the Tuileries. 

That the government was now acting under the inBuence 
of the most violent and extreme of the Paris politicians, 
events soon made clear. 

628. The Assignats. — The Church became the object of the 
most violent attacks. Already, the tithes had been abolished 
and now the, whole of the property of the Church was confis- 
cated and placed at the disposal of the state. Strange to say, 
it was Talleyrand, one of the indifferent French bishops, who 
proposed this act of robbery. 

However, the sale of the church property was very slow 
and did not realize enough, so a new expedient had to be 
devised. A number of bills, called assignats, was issued, on 
the security of church property, tliat is to say, the holders of 
these bills were to receive their face value when the church 
property ultimately came to be sold. 

This expedient ended disastrously. The assignats were 
issued in too great a number and the pu "^ saw that they 
were backed up by insufficient security. The suit was that 
the assignats soon became almost worthless an!l great distress 
was caused, 

629. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy. — Not only was 
the property of the Church thus attacked by the revolutionists, 
but e\'en its \'ery organization was tampered with. The old 
bishoprics were done a^vay with, and their place was taken hy 



424 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

new bishoprics exactly coterminous with the eighty-three 
departments into which France had been divided. It was 
also enacted that the bishops should be nominated by the 
department electoral assemblies, and that the pope's confirma- 
tion of the bishop should be entirely dispensed with. 

These enactments constituted what was called the civil con- 
stitution of the clergy. All bishops and clergy who refused 
to take an oath to be faithful to this law were to be prosecuted 
and as time went on the penalties on conviction were contin- 
ually increased. Those who took the oath were called jurors, 
those who refused to do so for religious or other reasons were 
called non- jurors. 

It was clearly the intention of the revolutionary leaders to 
de-catholicize France. And fresh evidence of this was soon 
forthcoming. The old church of St. Genevieve was turned 
into a burial place and here were placed the remains of such 
anti-relieious writers as Voltaire and Rousseau. 



'to' 



630. Flight of the Nobles. — It soon became evident that 
the nobles also, who formed the second of the two upper 
Estates, would be subjected to rough treatment. Accordingly 
many of them, including the Count of Artois, the king's 
youngest brother, crossed the Rhine into Germany. There 
they set up a little court of their own, contemptible for its 
frivolities and dangerous on account of its insolence. 

But even at this juncture there was still some hope of salva- 
tion for the old monarchy. The excesses of the extreme revo- 
lutionists, and especially their ill-treatment of the clergy had 
provoked a reaction. Within the ranks of the National 
Assembly there had been formed a party opposed to extreme 
measures and inclined to uphold the cause of a limited mon- 
archy. The leader of this party was the Count Mirabeau, a 
powerful orator and endowed with the highest cjualities of 
statesmanship. 



LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY 425 

631. A New Constitution. — Alirabeau advised the king to 
leave the capital and to arm the provinces against the extrem- 
ists in tlie capital. But just at this moment Mirabeau died. 
The king instead of seeking- to place liimself at the head of 
the provinces, tried to leave the kingdom altogether to join a 
foreign army against France. He fled in disguise, but was 
detected by the post-master at \\'irennes, arrested, and brought 
back to Paris. 

The king's attempt aroused the wildest indignation, and 
now the National Assembly brought forward the new consti- 
tution which it had been preparing during the last two years. 

The main elements of the constitution were, (a) a central 
government to consist of the king and a Legislative Assembly 
elected every two years ; ( b) France to be divided into depart- 
ments, the departments into districts (arrondissements), and 
these again into towns and villages (communes). All these 
units of local government were to be governed by their own 
elected councils. 

The king by this constitution had very little power. The 
Legislative Assembly had control of national affairs. The 
councils of the departments of the districts and of the com- 
munes enjoyed a great deal of local authority. 

The king signed his name to the new constitution and with 
this begins a new period. 

The Legislative Assembly ( 1 791- 1792) 

632. The Revolutionary Clubs. — The arrest of the king 
had caused a revulsion of feeling against him. At the same 
time the revolutionary clubs assumed greater importance and 
more than counteracted any restraining influence that might 
still exist in the Assembly as a whole. The chief of these 
clubs were those of the Jacobins and the Girondists. The 
Jacobins desired a republic by any means fair or foul, while- 



4-rO ERA OF THE FRESCH RErOLl'TIOX 

the Girondists though wishing for a repubhc only desired to 
obtain it by constitutional and moderate means. Naturally, 
the Jacobins being the more violent and assertive had the 
greater share of influence. 

635. Foreign Interference. — Fogether with these internal 
influences, most serious complications were brought about by 
the action of the foreign powers. These were bitterly indig- 
nant at the ill-treatment meted out to their brother sovereign 
and they naturally feared the evil eftects of the example up^^n 
their own states. In 1791. the Emperor Le^^pold of Austria 
issueii the Declaration of Pillnitz which declaret.1 that he and 
the king of Prussia would join the other European pv^wers in 
an attempt " to set up a form of gfovemment more in harmony 
with the rights of sovereigns and with the welfare of the 
French nation." 

Soon after this. Leopold died and was succeeded by Francis 
II whose policy was still more aggressive. War l^canie 
inevitable and its approach was being continually hastened by 
the impnident conduct of the emigrant nobles across the 
Rhine. 

634. War With Austria. — At the outset, the war went 
against the French forces. Not only were they unsuccessful 
in an invasion of the Austrian Netherlands but foreign troops 
were actually at the ver}- frontiers of France. The growing 
dang-er maddened the Parisian populace. They invaded the 
Tuileries and subjected the king to the grossest indignities. 
But this was only the prelude to something still worse for 
now the last ^•estige of the old monarchical constitution was 
overtiinied. The Legislative Assembly deliberated with the 
Commune of Paris and decided to remove the king altogether 
from the constitution. In accordance with this decision they 
resolved that the people should be invited to elect members of 



mi- CONVENTION 427 

a convention that should draw up a scheme oi republican gov- 
ernment. This was accorrlingly done and so in 1792 we 
enter upon the third period. 

The Convention Ti 792-1 793 j 

635. The Republic Established. — The first act of the new 
Convention was to declare the fact of the French Republic. 
Nor was there a single dissentient voice. The constitution- 
alists had already disappeared, and in their place were only 
two parties, namely the Girondists who wished for a Re;)ublic 
but by constitutional means, and the Mountain that consisted 
of the most extreme Republicans. 

1'hree men in the Convention now rapidly came to the 
front and asserted a strong influence in the direction of affairs. 
These men were Danton, Marat, and Robespierre. 

Danton was a man of tall, majestic presence with a voice 
like thunder and an eloquence like a mighty torrent. But he 
was ambitious, greedy, and revengeful. 

Marat was a demagogue of the furious type. He was not 
altogether wanting in ability, but he was swayed entirely by 
violent emotions. 

Robespierre on the other hand was a ruffian of a different 
type. He was cool, cunning, cautious, and reserved. His 
clearness of views and a certain latent reserve of power more 
than compensated for the meanness and insignificance of his 
personal appearance. But a considerable amount of low mal- 
ice prevents him from being considered a great man. 

636. Execution of the King. — A keen discussion was 
raised as to what should be done with the deposed king. 
There seems to have been three different opinions. Some 
thought that the king's life should be spared, others that the 
king should at least be given the benefit of a trial, and others 



428 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

again maintained that the king should be forthwith executed 
as a pubhc enemy. It was finally decided that Louis should 
be allowed a trial and the benefit of counsel. After a long 
debate, he was adjudged guilty and condemned to the guillo- 
tine. Six days afterwards the sentence was carried out. 
Louis met his fate with the same patience and fortitude that 
had characterized the end of Charles I (1749). 

637. Insurrections in France. — The Mountain had thus 
asserted its supremacy in the Convention, and before long, 
with the aid of the Paris mob. they expelled the Girondists 
altogether. But these high-handed proceedings did not pass 
unchallenged. Insurrections broke out in the provinces, and 
even the great cities of Marseilles. Bordeaux, and Lyons took 
part. Especially serious was the revolt of the peasantry in 
the department of La Vendee. But the armies of the Republic 
were successful and more than all, the Convention had adopted 
the expedient of entrusting the defence of the government and 
of the nation to a small picked body of men of great sagacity 
and entrusted with great power. This small executive body 
was called the 

Conirnittce of Public Safety 

638. Success of the Army. — It not only dealt in a vigorous 
and efficient wav with the insurrections at home but it also 
warded off the terrors of foreign invasion. An immense 
army was raised by a universal conscription and able generals 
like Carnot. Jourdan, and Hoche were placed in command. 
Two x^ustrian armies were beaten in succession and jealousy 
between the Austrians and Prussians completed what the 
French armies were unable to accomplish. 

639. The Reign of Terror. — But these successes were 
marred by the despotic cruelty of the government. It was 



COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY 429 

now that begins what is justly called the Reign of Terror. A 
revolutionary tribunal was set up and in the course of four 
months alone, no fewer than six hundred victims fell under 
its bloodthirsty functions. Among the victims were the queen 
Marie Antoinette and such distinguished persons as the Duke 
Philip of Orleans, Madam Roland, and Barnave, the eminent 
lawyer and jurist. 

640. Treaty of Basel. — Towards the close of the admin- 
istration of the Committee of Public Safety, France had 
achieved glorious success abroad. Holland was completely 
defeated and made into a repubhc called the Batavian Repub- 
lic. Prussia lost all command of the west bank of the Rhine, 
and the Austrians were ignominiously driven back to their 
own country. The success of the French was finally sealed 
by the Treaty of Basel (1795). The terms of this Treaty 
were, (a) that France should retain her conquests on the west 
bank of the Rhine on condition of ceding some territory on 
the right bank; (b) France was to keep possession of St. 
Domingo from Spain; (c) France had to recognize the neu- 
trality of the Northern States of Germany as the allies of 
Prussia. 

641. The Ability of the Committee. — Whatever may be 
said of the cruelty of the Committee of Public Safety and of 
the Convention that called it into being, there was at least 
power, and power is sometimes better for a state than feeble 
goodness. 

Besides power, there was also displayed a considerable tal- 
ent of organization. The intellectual welfare of the nation 
was provided for by bettering the whole system of education 
through the erection of such establishments as the Normal 
School, the Polytechnic School of France, the Conservatory 
of France, the Institute of France, and the National Library. 



430 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

Social order and commerce were promoted by a still further 
advance in the unification of the civil code and by the adoption 
of the metric system of weights and measures. Even the 
flower of philanthropy could blossom amid the horrors of the 
Reign of Terror as was shown in the improved condition of 
hospitals and prisons. 

But the main work of the Convention was supposed to be 
a construction of some form of Republican government and 
by October, 1795, this task was definitely accomplished. 

The new constitution was composed of a directory of five 
persons who were to be the executive, and an upper chamber 
consisting of 250 members over forty years of age, and a 
lower chamber of 500 members over thirty years of age. We 
now enter upon the period of 

The Directory (i 795-1 799) 

642. Rise of Napoleon. — \\'e have said already that France 
has made peace with Prussia and Spain, but she was still at 
war with Austria, England, and Sardinia. At this date 
Napoleon Bonaparte began to display his genius. 

This young officer was by birth an Italian rather than a 
Frenchman. He was already ten years of age when he was 
taken by his father from Italy to France, and he could speak 
French only imperfectly. He was educated first at the mili- 
tary school of Brienne and afterwards in Paris. His skill 
and bravery in an attack on Toulon had already raised him to 
the notice of the government. 

643. War with Austria. — When the Directory assumed 
office, young Napoleon was entrusted with an important share 
in the military operations in Europe. While the generals 
Moreau and Jourdan led two large armies against Germany. 
Bonaparte was entrusted with a third army for the purpose of 



BATTLE OF THE NILE 43 1 

driving the Austrians out of Italy. Napoleon on this occasion' 
displayed his genius for extraordinary rapid movements. He 
and his army crossed the Alps even before the snow was yet 
melted. By this move, he thus separated the Sardinian and 
the Austrian armies, beat them both in succession and made 
himself complete master of the Austrian provinces in Italy. 

While this was going on. the other two French generals 
had been sadly worsted in Germany. So, Bonaparte again 
with lightning rapidity crossed the Eastern Alps and by 
threatening Vienna forced the Emperor of Austria to con- 
clude an armistice. 

644. By the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) France re- 
ceived from Austria the Belgian provinces, the Ionian islands, 
the recognition of the Cisalpine Republic in Northern Italy, 
and the acceptance of the Rhine as the Eastern frontier of 
France. Austria, on the other hand, received as compensa- 
tion, the Venetian dominions that had been taken by 
Napoleon. 

Fresh victories crowned Bonaparte with new laurels. He 
was quick to perceive that his most dangerous foe was Eng- 
land, whose position and policy had always made her the up- 
holder of the balance of power in Europe. He resolved 
therefore to attack England in her eastern possessions. He 
sailed to Egypt and in 1798 gained the Battle of the Pyra- 
mids. 

645. Battle of the Nile. — But here Bonaparte was destined 
to receive his first check. The French fleet was beaten and 
destroyed by the English admiral Nelson in the bay of Abukir 
at the mouth of the Nile (1799). Though Bonaparte suc- 
ceeded afterwards in taking Gaza and Jaffa, he was foiled 
again at the siege of Acre. Bitterly disappointed, he returned 
home. 



/ 

432 ' ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

646. Work of the Directory. — During Bonaparte's absence 
in Egypt, the Directory had not been idle. It had set up the 
Helvetic Republic in Switzerland, driven the pope from his 
temporal possessions, forming out of them the Tiberine 
Republic and finally it had expelled the king of Naples, form- 
ing out of his possessions the Parthenopean Republic. 

But this work was more brilliant than solid. The Powers 
of Europe again took to arms. The Republics that had been 
set up were abolished, and even France herself was once more 
in danger. 

The Directory became very unpopular and Napoleon intend- 
ing to assume control of affairs himself, speedily brought 
about its overthrow. 

647. The First Consul. — In 1799 the Directory was dis- 
solved and Napoleon became First Consul. Nominally there 
were two other consuls, but he had complete control of the 
government. 

With this step, the Republican form of government came to 
an end and we enter once more upon a period of personal rule. 
Napoleon first as consul and then as Emperor wields a power 
even more despotic than that of Louis XIV. 

648. Revolt of the American Colonies. — Closely connected 
with the French Revolution was the separation of the Ameri- 
can colonies from England. The successful wars of the co- 
lonials against the French had had the effect of breaking down 
the barriers between the different provinces and of making 
possible greater unity of action. At the same time, the con- 
duct of the English government had exasperated the colonials 
to the last degree. George III, the reigning monarch of 
England, was disposed to assert his royal power to the fullest 
extent. Prohibition put upon all manufactures, the im])osi- 
tion of grievous taxes, interference with the due procedure of 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 433 

justice, and the violation of the charters of the colonies — all 
these and other evils induced them to appeal to arms and to 
shake off their subjection to England. 

649. Declaration of Independence. — In 1775, began the 
American war of independence. The battle of Bunker's Hill 
was fought in which the English were victorious, and then on 
the 4th of July (1776), was signed the famous Declaration 
of Independence. 

At first the English were successful. Under Sir William 
Howe, they won the battle of Brooklyn and captured New 
York, and after this the English succeeded in taking Phila- 
delphia, the headquarters of the colonial leaders. 

But here their success ended. The English general Bur- 
goyne had to capitulate at Saratoga, and later on, Lord Corn- 
wallis had to surrender at Yorktowai to the Americans under 
Washington. This last event ended the war. Not only did 
the nations of Europe recognize the independence of America, 
but even King George III himself saw that the contest was 
hopeless. In 1783, was signed the Treaty of Paris in which 
England recognized the independence of America. 

650. Career of the Younger Pitt. — The course of events in 
England between 1784 and 1801 was directed mainly by the 
great minister, William Pitt the Younger. 

His financial and commercial policy w^ere important. He 
had read Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations and he was a pro- 
nounced free trader. Under his administration, many of the 
present large manufacturing towns of England began to rise; 
roads and canals were c<onstructed, and agriculture received a 
remarkable impulse from the discovery of a new system of 
farming. 

Under Pitt's administration, the political condition of 
England also underwent a change. The effective support 



434 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

given to him by the people, a support which enabled him to 
win over the opposition of Parliament, showed that the peo- 
ple themselves were now taking a more active part in the bus- 
iness of the state. And there was another even still more im- 
portant change. There began to arise an aristocracy of 
wealth which formed a preponderating element in English 
social and political life. And this also was partly the result 
of Pitt's deliberate policy since he openly bestowed both of- 
fice and influence upon the wealthy manufacturers of the 
country. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

English philosophical doctrines of the state find their way into 
France — Voltaire-Rousseau — Montesquieu — Political Causes of 
the Revolution — The French Parlements — Economic causes of 
the Revolution — Economic disunion of France — Heavy taxes 

— Religious causes of the Revolution — Bad administration of 
Church revenues — Spirit of irreligion — Louis XVI — Turgot 

— Necker — Calonne — Meeting of the States-General — The 
National Assembly — Successive forms of Revolutionary govern- 
ment — Fall of the Bastille — The French Commune — Reforms 
made by the Assembly — Attacks on church property — New 
bishoprics founded — The civil constitution — Flight of the no- 
bles — The moderate party — The new constitution — Revolu- 
tionary clubs — Hostility of Europe — Final overthrow of the 
monarchy — Declaration of the French republic — Danton — 
Marat — Robespierre — The King's execution — Opposition of 
the provinces — Success of the French army — Reign of Terror 

— Treaty of Basel — Improvements effected by the Committee — 
Napoleon Bonaparte — Bonaparte in Italy — Treaty of Campo 
Formio — French fleet destroyed — Work of the Directory — 
Change in the government — Causes of the revolt of the Ameri- 
can colonies — Battle of Bunker's Hill — Treaty of Versailles — 
Administration of Pitt the Younger. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Macklehose, Last days of French M anarchs; Mrs. Gardiner, French 
Revolution; Cambridge, Modern History; French Revolution; Lowell, 
Eve of French Revolution ; Taine, Ancient Regime; Tocqueville, The 
Old Regime and the Revolution ; Morley, Voltaire; Morley, Rousseau, 



ATTACK ON THE POPE 443 

Orthez they received crushing defeats, while their defense of 
the cities of Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajos. and San Sebastian was 
broken down. At the last the French Eagles were compelled 
to fall back beyond the snowy peaks of the Pyrenees. 

Napoleon was not present himself during the whole of the 
Spanish campaign. Austria, his first bitter enemy, was again 
in arms against him. Leaving his generals Massena and Soult 
to conduct the war in Spain he hastened to France, assembled 
an army on the Rhine, advanced into Austria and at the battle 
of Wagram, 6th of July, 1809, Napoleon laid Austria pros- 
trate at his feet. He then turned his arms against the papacy 
and again invaded Italy. 

665. Attack on the Pope. — Pope Pius VII had offended 
him on account of his reluctance to join in the offensive 
league against England. When the pope refused to expel the 
English subjects from the papal states, and to prevent English 
ships from entering the papal harbors, Napoleon roughly re- 
plied : " You are sovereign of Rome ; I am emperor, my 
enemies are yours." Napoleon's actions were even rougher 
than his words. In July, 1809, the papal palace of the Quir- 
inal was stormed, the pope was taken prisoner and eventually 
removed to Fontainebleau in France, and the " good city of 
Rome " declared a second city of the empire. 

With the captivity of the pope and his enforced residence in 
France the emperor seemed to have everything at his feet. 
But from now the hand of destiny seemed turned against the 
new emperor. Though the pope was at the emperor's mercy, 
though he had to endure insults and even violence, yet the 
power of patient suffering was victorious against rampant 
brutality. In May, 1814, the pope returned to Rome amidst 
universal rejoicings and the year after received back all his 
temporal possessions. 

W^e now' have to consider the third difficulty in which 



444 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 

Napoleon found himself involved on account of the Berlin 
decrees. 

666. Invasion of Russia. — Russia, in spite of its promise, 
had secretly encouraged the importation into Russia of Eng- 
lish goods, and soon there developed a coolness between 
Napoleon and Alexander that grew into open war. In 1812, 
Napoleon invaded Russia. The Russian plan of defense was 
carried out on the same lines as when the Swedes invaded 
Russia. The country was devastated for miles around, and 
the French were allowed to enter far into the heart of Russia 
far away from the base of supplies. The French capture of 
the city of Moscow became a mere empty exploit, void of any 
material advantage, and Napoleon and his army had to retreat 
to France, amid the ice and snow of a severe Russian winter. 
The loss of men during- this campaign was enormous, but the 
loss of prestige in Europe had the most serious effects. 

667. Battle of Leipsic. — Austria and Prussia again took 
courage and joined Russia against the common oppressor, and 
in 181 3 was fought the battle of Leipsic. The Allies vastly 
superior in numbers easily overcame the French, of whomi 
25,000 were obliged to surrender as prisoners of war. This 
Battle of the Nations as it is called was even more disastrous 
than the retreat from Moscow. The French army became 
demoralized, Germany and Holland rose in revolt, and more 
serious still, a profound dissatisfaction in F'rance began to 
make itself visible. 

668. Paris Taken. — When Napoleon returned to France, 
the legislative body showed signs of independence, and the 
whole nation seemed tired and wearied of the struggle. It 
became difficult either to collect taxes or to find conscripts for 
the army. And now the allied armies were fast closing in 



WATERLOO 445 

upon France. In vain for two whole months did Napoleon 
display all his genius for rapid marches and unheard of com- 
binations, now flying at one invading army, now at another. 
The odds against him were overwhelming, and in March, 
1814, the armies of the allies entered and occupied Paris. 

Napoleon was forced to abdicate but was allowed to retire 
to the Isle of Elba oyer which he was allowed absolute sov- 
ereignty together with a revenue of six millions of francs. 
His place in France was taken by Louis XVIII, younger 
brother of Louis XVI. 

Napoleon spent just ten months on the Island of Elba. 
During most of the time he was maturing plans for his resto- 
ration to power. For his chances were still great. He could 
rely upon the old soldiers whom he had led from victory to 
victory, upon the office holders, displaced by the Bourbon 
dynasty, and most of all upon his still powerful relatives. 

669. Waterloo. — The Congress of Vienna was still settling 
the affairs of Europe when the news was brought that Napo- 
leon had returned to France. 

The allies again had to take to arms, and in June, 181 5, 
was fought the decisive battle of Waterloo near Brussels. At 
first the battle was between the French and the English. 
Napoleon's soldiers made charge after charge. But the su- 
perb British infantry held their ground firmly. At length to- 
wards the end of the battle the Prussians under Bliicher ar- 
rived and quickly the whole French army was put to flight. 

The battle of Waterloo closed the long succession of N'apo- 
leonic wars. Napoleon was exiled to the Isle of St. Helena, 
while the powers were able to continue the important negotia- 
tions that led up to the Treaty of Vienna. 

670. Second Vienna Congress. — The question that caused 
the greatest difficulty in the Congress of Vienna was the dis- 



446 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 

posal of Poland and Saxony. Regarding Poland, the great- 
est efforts were made by Russia to obtain the Grand Duchy 
of Warsaw. But Prussia naturally demanded that some 
compensation should be made her for such a surrender of 
territory, though it had been gained by the previous partitions 
of Poland. It was proposed therefore that Saxony should be 
handed over to Prussia who would therefore gain in the west 
what it had lost in the east. 

But even this arrangement met wath great opposition. In 
fact, both Austria and England viewed with dislike any ag- 
grandizement of Russia and they were equally opposed to the 
injury that would be inflicted on the king of Saxony. 

After much discussion, a further compromise was effected. 
The Duchy of Warsaw with the exception of certain provinces 
and districts was allowed to go to Russia, but not the whole of 
Saxony was handed over to Prussia — only a portion of it 
which went by the name of the Duchy of Saxony, the other 
portion of Saxony, including Dresden, the capital, remained 
with the king, Augustus. 

The other provisions of the Treaty were as follows : 

(a) Holland and Netherlands were erected into one king- 
dom under the house of Nassau. 

(b) The integrity of the Swiss Confederation was recog- 
nized. 

(c) The king of Sardinia received the Duchy of Genoa 
in addition to his territories of 1792. 

(d) In Germany, Austria was enriched with the Venetian 
and Lombardian provinces ; Hanover was erected into a king- 
dom and enlarged in size, Prussia obtained in addition a 
portion of Saxony, certain districts on the left bank of the 
Rhine, and also recovered Swedish Pomerania. The old im- 
perial supremacy of Austria was done away with, and its place 
was taken by a confederation of the separate states of Ger- 
many. 



RESULTS OF NAPOLEONIC WARS 447 

(e) In Italy, Ferdinand IV. king- of the two Sicilies, re- 
ceived back the kingdom of Naples, and the pope was restored 
to the whole of his papal states. 

(f) England acquired Malta, the Ionian Islands, Cape 
Colony and Ceylon. 

671. Results of the Napoleonic Wars. — It was evident that 
a great deal of this arbitrary division of territories must 
needs be ephemeral. Yet, the Napoleonic wars did produce 
some very lasting and important results on the after-history 
of Europe. 

First of all, the way was being prepared for German unity. 
A great number of the lesser states had been abolished, and 
now there were only about forty. Austria whose prestige 
had always enabled it to assume whatever leadership was pos- 
sible in Germany was now weakened and evidently disabled 
from a duty she was unable to perform. Prussia, on the 
other hand, owing to the social and economic reforms that 
had been brought about indirectly by the wars was now ad- 
mirably fitted to perform the all important task of bringing 
about and heading a united Germany. 

In Italy the way had been prepared for future unity. The 
violence that had been done to the old territorial divisions 
and the temporary coalescence of territories into large groups 
broke down the barriers of isolation and raised aspirations 
towards a United Italy. 

Throughout all Europe, the effects of the Napoleonic wars 
were. seen in a general reaction in the direction of monarchy 
and conservatism. In some states, even the privileges of the 
nobles and the old feudal burdens were restored. But the 
reaction was but slight, and the fundamental principles of the 
Revolution, although apparently in suspension for half a cen- 
tury, still continued to mould the political destiny of the 
nations of Europe. 



448 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Napoleon's active foreign policy — Battle of Marengo — 
Treaty of Luneville — The constitution drawn up by Lieyes — 
Napoleon's religious reforms — The code Napoleon — Napoleon 
crowned emperor — • Material reforms — Napoleon in Austria — 
Treaty of Pressburg — Battle of Trafalgar — Napoleon wars in 
Prussia — • Napoleon beats Prussia — Berlin decrees and Treaty 
of Tilsit — Results of the Berlin decrees — War in Spain — 
War in Austria — Napoleon's attack on the Papacy — Napo- 
leon's invasion of Russia — Battle of Leipsic — Discontent of 
France — Napoleon's exile at Elba. — Battle of Waterloo — • 
Congress of Vienna — Results of the Congress of Vienna. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

FouRNiER, Life of Napoleon; Taine, Modern Regime; Thiers, History 
of the Consulate and of the Empire; Seeley, History of Napoleon; Ropes, 
Napoleon; Lanfrey, History of Napoleon; Andrews, Historical develop- 
ment of Europe; Southey, Life of Nelson; Creasy, Decisive Battles of 
the World; Wood, Cavalry in Waterloo; Cambridge, Modern History, 
Napoleon; Colonel Furse, Marengo, Hohenlinden; Furse, joo Years 
Ago; Battles oH Land and Sea; Ulm, Austerlitc; Pascal, History of the 
French Army; Du Pradt, Les Quatres concordats. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 

672. Progress of German Union. — The unification of Ger- 
many l)egan with the Napoleonic wars and the congress of 
Vienna. The removal of a great number of the lesser states, 
the formation of such large groups as the kingdom of West- 
phalia, and the German Confederation, the weakening of Aus- 
tria, now unfit for the leadership of Germany, the strengthen- 
ing of Prussia, and finally, the formation of one common Ger- 
man interest and patriotism — all these were already paving 
the way to a future German Empire. 

Even the weakness of the German Confederation that was 
formed at the Congress of Vienna, indirectly helped to the 
same end. Both from the legislative and from the executive 
point of view, this Confederation was thoroughly inept. The 
Federal Diet was reduced to a state of nullity by the absurd 
provision that all measures of great importance must be passed 
by a unanimous vote. Even if such measures were passed, 
there was no practical machinery for carrying them out. Be- 
sides this political lifelessness, the separate German states 
were reduced to about the same state of commercial isolation 
as the French provinces before the Revolution. 

673. The Customs Union. — But in 1828, there appeared 
an important movement that portended future results even still 
more important. This was a movement in the direction of 
German commercial unity. A Customs Union was formed 
by which it was agreed that free trade should be established 
among all the German states. Henceforth, merchandise could 
pass from one German state to another free of duty. 

450 



BISMARCK 



451 



674. William I and Bismarck. — It was not, however, until 
1 86 1 that there took place anything decisive in the direction 
of German political unit3^ In this year William I ascended 
the Prussian throne, and one of his first acts was to call to his 
side as minister Otto Bismarck, the real originator of German 
unity, and as he has been called rightly " a man of blood and 
iron." 

Bismarck saw that before 
Germany unity could be ac- 
complished the important 
Cjuestion would have first 
to be settled as to who 
should be the organizer and 
leader of the unity. The 
answer could only be either 
Austria or Prussia. Theory 
and tradition were certainly 
on the side of Austria. At 
the congress of V^ienna. 
there were German states- 
men who implored Francis 
to resume the office and 
dignity of Otto the Great. 
But Bismarck was deter- 
mined that in fact, Prussia 
and not Austria, should be 
the leader, and that the first preliminary step must be to 
weaken still further the power of Austria. 

Already there were circumstances that favored his design. 
Prussia was the first military state in Germany. By a uni- 
versal system of conscription she had become one huge fight- 
ing machine. Besides this inherent fighting strength a con- 
siderable party in nearly all the German states wished to ac- 
cept Prussia as the natural leader. This was the party of the 




Prince Bismarck. Born 181 5; died 



452 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 

liberal reformers. They perceived that Austria would be 
most unlikely to carry out their ideas, since by so doing Aus- 
tria owing to its many racial elements would at once lose its 
homogeneity and even its identity. Prussia, on the other 
hand, could have no such repugnance to constitutional re- 
forms. Her race people were practically homogeneous with 
the exception of her recently acquired Polish dominions. 

In 1847 ^^ opportunity occurred for Bismark to make war 
upon Austria. 

675. The Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein though inhabited 
mainly by Germans, had for centuries been under the rule of 
Denmark. They were not, however, an integral part of the 
Danish kingdom and were allowed a considerable amount of 
local government. When Frederick VII of Denmark died 
without male heirs, the Germans claimed that the duchies 
should be absorbed by German Confederation. To this the 
new king of Denmark strongly objected. The question was 
evidently one that could be decided only by war and Prussia 
took the lead. 

Bismarck invited Austria to co-operate with an army and 
soon Denmark was forced to give way (1864). 

676. War with Austria. — It was now that Bismarck found 
his opportunity for forcing war upon Austria. Bismarck 
claimed that the duchies should be made dependent upon Prus- 
sia. To this Austria objected and a compromise was made 
by which Prussia should govern Schleswig and Austria should 
take over Holstein. 

In the meantime Bismarck was making preparations for 
war with Austria. Austria was not blind to what was going 
on and in self-defense amassed troops for the war that was 
inevitable. This was construed by Bismarck into an act of 
war. He declared the German Confederation dissolved and 
forthwith began hostilities (1866). 



UNION AGAINST FRANCE 453 

The war lasted only six weeks. Nothing could stop the 
advance of the well armed and well disciplined Prussian 
troops, and the important battle of Sadowa ended the duel 
between Prussia and Austria. The supremacy of Prussia was 
secured and Austria became politically excluded from Ger- 
many. 

677. The North-German Confederation. — Bismarck now 
proceeded to form a confederation under the leadership of 
Prussia. He was, however, not strong enough to include 
in it the middle states south of the river Main. He therefore 
formed a confederation wdiich consisted of the Protestant 
Northern states. The president of the Confederation was the 
king of Prussia and the chief governing body was the Bundes- 
rath and the Reichstag, the Bundesrath consisting of the rulers 
of the states, each having one vote, and the Reichstag con- 
sisting of deputies elected by universal suffrage. 

678. French Influence in the South. — The great obstacle 
to the incorporation of the southern states had been France. 
Even from the time of Richelieu, the Southern German states 
had been under French influence, and the same interfering 
policy was pursued by Choiseul and after him by Talleyrand. 
It was evident that the influence of France was directly op- 
posed to the interests of Prussia. France on the other hand 
had reason to be alarmed at the prospect of the undoing of 
her long traditional policy in southern Germany, and also at 
the prospect of a united Germany under the formidable Ho- 
henzollerns. 

The only question that remained was who should incur the 
odium of starting the war. 

679. The Franco-Prussian War. — In 1869, the throne of 
Spain which had become vacant was offered to Leopold, a 



454 I XlFICjriOS OF CF.RMAXY JXP OF ITALY 

incinlH^r of the Hoheiu-oUern family, Xa|X">leon III saw 
in this a daiigXT to the balance of ^x^wer in Euroi>e and a 
menace to the safety of France who wonUl thns tind herself 
snrrc>undeti on lH">th sides by a |x^\verful dynasty whose ii\- 
tentions were donbtfnl. Bnt the demands of Xaix^lei^n were 
so nnreasonable that they gave rise to the general idea that 
he had wantonly prvnokeil the war. 

He insisteil not only that Lev^jx^ld should not accept tlie 
otYer but also that King William should promise that no llo- 
henzolleni should ever become a candidate for the S|xinish 
thiXMie. 

William tiatly retusetl. Ihen the German news|vqx^rs 
ti.x>k up the matter and j.ierhaps at the instigation of Bismarck 
made out that the French ambassador had been ^ossly in- 
sultevl. 

France declared war. iioping liiat at the tirst French viciory. 
the south Gennan states would join her ag^ainst Prussia. 
But the Prussian army beat the French almost as easily as 
it had beaten the Anstrians. Metz, the great French fortress 
in Alsace, was besiegevl and taken, while at the battle of Seilan 
^^1871) the French were completely rontetl. Even Paris it- 
self was taken. At length France had to sign the ignominious 
treaty of Frankfort by which she had to cetle Lorraine and 
Als;ice to Gennany and also pay a heavy war indemnity. 

680. William I Becomes Emperor of Gennany. — Xajx>- 
levMi's hoi>e that south liennan states would join France against 
Pnissia was cvnnpleiely disapix>intevl. Pnissia had ^x^seil all 
along as the champion of the Gennan cause and the (.rt?rman 
States eagerly follow evl its standard. In January 1871, 
w hile the l^sieging forces were still investing Paris, the ix->licy 
of Bismarck received in the palace of \'ersailles its crowning 
triumph. Within the palace of \*ersaiUes, the king of Bava- 
ria at the instigation of Bismarck pro|K^sed that William should 



AUSTRIAN COXST/riJlON 



455 



be German J'.rnj^eror. All were unanimous, aiul thus after 
centuries of waiting' we find Tiermany at last one united nation. 

68i. The German Constitution assumed the form of an 
imperial federation. The Prussian king is the hereditary pres- 
ident of this federa- 
tion. L'nder him 
are tlie Hundesrath 
or federal council 
consisting of fifty- 
six delegates from 
the different states, 
and the Reichstag 
elected by manhood 
suffrage. 'J'he min- 
istry is always ap- 
jjointed by the em- 
peror. 

682. Constitution 
of Austria . — Aus- 
tria now ceased to 
be a part of Ger- 
m a n y. She still 
retains a consider- 
able element of Ger- 
man population but ^vilHa^, I. Emperor of Germany. Born 1797; died 

she now busies her- '^^^' 

self in extending- her influence southward among the Slav 
states. After the battle of Sadowa there was formed what is 
called the Dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Both of 
these kingdoms are ruled by the emperor of Austria, but they 
have their own independent parliaments. The common affairs 
of the two kingdoms are transacted by a council of which 
sixty members are sent from each of the two parliaments. 




456 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 

The Unification of Italy 

683. The Unification of Italy also began with the Napo- 
leonic wars and the Congress of Vienna. Old barriers were 
for the time removed, traditions of the past were broken, and 
more than all, there had been created a wave of intense patriot- 
ism and a desire for constitutional liberty. There were also 
other parallels between the two countries. What Austria had 
been to Germany that the pope had been to Italy. In the same 
way as Austria had in the past seemed the only possible ful- 
crum with which to accomplish German unity, so the popes 
in previous times had aspired to a united Italy under their 
leadership. And as Austria had become enfeebled, so also 
the papal power had already received a shock that made the 
prospect of the leadership of a united Italy more difficult 
and remote. And as Prussia had by its brute military 
strength and by its w^onderful intriguing become the new 
fulcrum of unity, so also Sardinia was now marked out for 
the task of accomplishing the unity of Italy. 

684. Political Conditions of Italy. — We have seen that by 
the Treaty of Vienna, Austria had acquired possession of 
Venetia and Lombardy. These acquisitions gave her a strong 
foothold in Italy and enabled her for a time to dominate 
Italian politics. This she did by upholding against the liberals 
and radicals the despotic rulers that still reigned in Italy. In 
the south, there was the Bourbon ruler of Naples and the 
Sicilies, in the middle of Italy was the pope at the head of his 
old papal states, and in the north, there were the conservative 
and absolutists. But within all these dominions there ex- 
isted a strong liberal party who aspired to a united Italy and 
constitutional government. 

685. Revolutionary Uprisings took place all over Italy 
during the years 1820 and 1821. First, in Naples the Car- 



MAZZINI 457 

bonari, the name given to the secret society of Italian hberals 
raised an open insurrection and forced Ferdinand I to grant 
a free constitution ; similar revoUs took place in Sardinia ; 
and finally in the papal states the people also rebelled and 
declared the temporal power of the pope at an end. 

686. Austrian Interference. — But Austria, in all these in- 
stances posed as the champion of the conservative rulers. Her 
troops marched into Naples and reinstated Ferdinand in his 
old position of absolute ruler. In Sardinia. Charles Felix 
who had succeeded Victor Emmanuel, suppressed the uprising 
by merely threatening to call in the aid of the Austrian army, 
and naturally the close proximity of Sardinia to Austria gave 
the threat additional meaning. Finally the Austrian troops 
advanced to Rome, quelled the insurrection, and secured peace- 
ful election and coronation of the new Pope Pius IX (1846). 

687. Mazzini. — Still the leaven of the old revolutionary 
spirit was not entirely crushed out. Mazzini, a Genoese law- 
yer, and a man of inspiring enthusiasm rapidly organized all 
the moral and intellectual forces of Italy for a new outbreak. 
He was a man of philosophical ideas combined with a strong- 
emotional temperament and thus knew how to appeal to the 
peculiar genius of the Italian people. The older Carbonari 
were done away with and he formed what was called the 
Society of Young Italy. 

It was during this period that there appeared another chance 
of the new pope placing himself at the head of a united Italy. 
Together with the old tradition of leadership that still clung 
to the papal throne, the numerous reforms made by the pope 
in the direction of a liberal government seemed likely to place 
him at the head of the patriotic party throughout all Italy. 

688. The Papal Policy. — A new council of state was 
formed consisting of younger prelates, a cardinal of liberal 



458 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 

views was made secretary of state, the laws were revised, and 
several material and economic improvements were effected. 
Later, he made even still further concessions. But unfor- 
tunately his refusal to declare war against Austria, precluded 
him from taking any further leadership in the patriotic move- 
ment. The radicals in Rome grew violent and Pope Pius 
found it necessary for the sake of public order to form a 
stronger ministry under the able and energetic Count Rossi. 
This only infuriated the radicals still more. In November 
1848, Count Rossi w^as assassinated and shortly afterwards 
the pope was forced to flee from Rome. He was soon how- 
ever, restored to the Eternal City by the aid of French troops, 
and under the state secretaryship of Cardinal Antonelli, still 
further reforms were carried out in the departments of educa- 
tion, agriculture, and commerce. 

689. Sardinia Takes the Lead. — But the leadership of Italy 
of the future now passed to the military state of Sardinia. 
Charles Albert not only granted, as the pope had done, a lib- 
eral constitution, but he gratified the national aspirations by 
waging war upon Austria. At first, his arms were successful 
but at the battle of No vara (1849) in Piedmont the Sardin- 
ian army was defeated and Charles Albert was forced to 
resign the crown in favor of Victor Emmanuel II who was 
destined to achieve Italian unity. 

6go. Cavour. — Emmanuel's minister was Cavour, a vio- 
lent republican and ardent patriot, but well versed in the in- 
tricacies of European politics and diplomacy and a consum- 
mate statesman. 

He soon came to the conclusion that the unification of Italy 
could be accomplished only by outside help, and just at the 
opportune moment for this purpose a European war was just 
on the point of breaking out. 



CRIMEAN WAR 459 

691. The Crimean war (1855) rose from an attempt of 
the czar of Russia to assume the protectorate over the Greek 
subjects of the Sultan. The alhed forces of Turkey, France, 
and Great Britain were ranged against those of Russia. 
Cavour now offered his assistance to France, partly for the 
general purpose of asserting a place for Sardinia in Euro- 
pean politics, partly through the hope of receiving future as- 
sistance from France against 

Austria. 

The offer after some hesi- 
tation was accepted, and at 
the end of the Crimean war, 
Cavour at the Congress of 
Paris had the satisfaction of 
appearing at the board of 
European plenipotentiaries. 

When the cong'ress was 
over, Cavour devoted all his 
energy to preparing Sar- 
dinia for the great and 
final struggle against Aus- 
tria. The army was raised 
to the best of its fighting 
powers and an active alliance 
with France was secured. 

Count Cavour. 

692. War Between Sardinia and Austria. — In 18^9, the 
blow was struck. Partly by the adroitness of Cavour in 
warding off any possibility of a compromise between Sardinia 
and Austria, partly by the shortsightedness of Austria herself, 
the entire odium of the commencement of hostilities was 
thrown upon Austria. Her ultimatum that Sardinia should 
not be represented at a congress which was being held in order 
to settle the affairs of Italy, and that the Sardinian army 




460 UNIFICATION OP GERMANY AND OF ITALY 

should disband within three days were evidently unreasonable, 
and Cavour rejoiced because the apparent aggressiveness of 
Austria would justify France in coming to his assistance. 

693. Magenta and Solferino. — Sardinia refused to com- 
ply. An Austrian army crossed into Italy and at once Napo- 
leon III came to the help of his ally. The French army 
was well handled by Marshall MacMahon, and the Austrian 
army was in useless condition. The Austrian army was like 
the Austrian nation — a composition of different nationalities 
speaking different languages and dialects. Even the words 
of command were scarcely understood. It was therefore not 
surprising that the Austrians were defeated first at the battle 
of Magenta (June 4, 1859), and then at the battle of Sol- 
ferino (June 24). 

At once, Italy went wild with enthusiasm. Tuscany, 
Parma, and Modena, all offered the sovereignty of their states 
to Victor Emmanuel. 

694. Peace of Villafranca. — But at the moment when 
Sardinia was about to gather in the full fruits of its victory. 
Napoleon suddenly concluded with the Austrians the Peace of 
Villafranca (1859). The terms of the peace were that while 
Lombardy was to go to Sardinia, Venetia was still to remain 
in Austrian hands, and that the pope not Sardinia was to be 
the leader of the federation of the Italian states of Tuscany, 
Modena, Parma, and the Roman Legations. 

But Sardinia had gained a great deal. It had acquired 
more territory, and greater prestige in Italy. 

695. Garibaldi. — And now besides Cavour there appeared 
another patriot on the stage of Italian politics. This was 
Garibaldi, a former soldier of fortune and once a naturalized 
American citizen. 



25' id" 15" 10* 5° O" 5" 10* 




5 * Loti^itnile 



10" L>iMlitud«r East lo° from tin 



ATTACK ON PAPAL STATES 46 I 

In 1859 Francis II had succeeded his father, Ferdinand, on 
the throne of the Two SiciHes. Cavour proposed to Francis 
that he should arm himself against the arch enemy of Italy. 
But Francis II. clung to the conservative despotic traditions, 
and preferred to lean upon the Austrian alliance. Cavour's 
natural desire would have been to coerce his obstinate neigh- 
bor but he dare not incur the odium of waging an unprovoked 
war. 

But Garibaldi be- 
came the deus ex 
Machina. He sailed 
from Genoa (May 14, 
i860) with one thou- 
sand volunteers, re- 
duced Palermo and 
Sicily, and entered 
Naples in triumph. 

696. Attack o n 
Papal States. — Cav- 
our himself now be- 
gan to interfere. He 
found a pretext in the 
fact that Pius IX had 
set on foot a crusade 

. , . Pius IX, Pope 1846-1! 

tor the recovery ot 
the Legations. Cavour now sent an army that defeated the 
papal general Lamoriciere at Castel Fidardo, while Victor 
Emmanuel led an army in person to Naples. 

At the same time, a popular vote was ordered and Naples, 
Sicily and the Papal states of Umbria voted almost unani- 
mously for annexation to the Sardinian kingdom. 

By this time a real Italian kingdom had been formed, only 
Venetia and Rome remaining outside. V^enetia soon fell into 




462 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 

the hands of Sardinia by a treaty with Prussia which pro- 
vided that Venetia should be handed over to Sardinia as a 
reward for her help. 

Rome was now the only exception to the complete unifica- 
tion of Italy. As yet, the pope was maintained in possession 
of the Eternal City by the presence of French troops. But a 
treaty l)etween Napoleon III and the King of Sardinia stipu- 
lated that those troops should be withdrawn. This was ac- 
cordingly done in 1867. Henceforth the pope had to rely up- 
on his own little army consisting partly of his own subjects, 
partly of volunteers wlio came in hundreds from all the differ- 
ent countries of Europe. 

But this army could not long hold out and in 1870 an 
Italian army entered Rome by the Porta Pia. The center of 
Italian government was transferred from Turin the former 
capital of the Sardinian kingdom to Rome. 

697. Law of Guarantees. — Thus ended the temporal power 
of the popes in Rome. In 1871 a statute called the Law of 
Guarantees was passed which attempted to effect a compro- 
mise between the pope and the Italian government. 

(a) The Vatican Palace and grounds were assigned to 
the pope as his residence and were to be considered as extra- 
territorial — that is to say as not under the jurisdiction of 
the Italian government. 

(b) A fixed annual salary of over six million dollars was 
to be paid to the pope. 

(c) Einally, the pope was to be free in the exercise of all 
his spiritual functions. 

The pope however has never acquiesced in what he considers 
to be the unjust robbery of his possessions. He has also 
claimed that the deprivation of the temporal power is incom- 
patible wdth the free exercise of his spiritual duties. 



SUMMARY AND REFERENCE 463 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Beginnings of German unity — The customs Union — William 
the First — Policy of Bismarck — Prussia not Austria to be at 
the head of a united Germany — Prussia and Austria wage war 
on Denmark — War between Prussia and Austria — Battle of 
Sadowa — Prussia forms a confederation — Opposition from 
France — War between France and Germany — Treaty of 
Frankfort — William becomes Emperor of Germany — Nature 
of the present German constitution — Austrian dual monarchy — 
Parallel between the condition of Germany and that of Italy — 
Austrian intervention in Italy — Mazzini — Liberal policy of 
Pope Pius IX — Leadership of Italy falls to Sardinia — Cavour 
— Sardinia engages in the Crimean war • — ■ War between Austria 
and Sardinia — Sardinia beats Austria — Peace of Villafranca — 
Garibaldi — Garibaldi enters Naples — Formation of United 
Italy — End of the temporal power of the Popes — Law of 
Guarantees. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Fyffe, History of Modern Europe; jMunroe Smith, Bismarck and 
German Unity; Mallfson, Refounding of the German Empire; Meadocks, 
Reconstruction of Europe; Mullek, Recent Times; Headlan, Bismarck; 
Forbes, Life of Napoleon III; Leger, History of Aitstro-Hiingary; 
Thayer, Dawn of Italian Independence ; Cesaresco, Liberation of Italy; 
Stillman, Union of Italy; King, Maazini; Mazadi, Cavour; Alzog, 
Church History; Gallenga, The Pope and the King; Dicey, Victor 
Emmanuel ; Andrews, Historical Development of Modern Europe; 
Akrelanere, Italy and Victor Emmanuel ; Botta, History of Italy; BoN- 
FADiNi, Mezzo sccolo di Patriotismo ; Faldella, Storia della Giovane 
Italia. 



CHAPTER XXXII 



PROGRESS OF ENGLAND 



698. Relations with Ireland. — The revolt of the American 
colonies was not without results on the political relations be- 
tween England and Ireland. 

Ireland had even from the time of the conquests of Henry 
II. been in a state of discontent. She had never been wholly- 
absorbed into the English political system while to the politi- 
cal antagonism between Englislinian and Irishman there was 
also added the bitterness of religious strife. 

The Irish had always remained true to the Catholic faith, 
and they were also consistently steadfast to the declining 
cause of the House of Stuart. When James II was exiled, 
Ireland became the fulcrum by which he hoped to reestablish 
his rule in England. But the superior military power and 
skill of William III won the day, and after that time, Ireland 
was ground down under the heels of Protestant oppressors. 

699. The Penal Laws against Catholics in Ireland were a 
shame to civilization. No Catholic could sit in Parliament or 
could hold office; if the son of a Catholic gentleman turned 
Protestant he could take possession of his father's estate; if 
a Catholic owned a horse he could be forced to sell it to any 
Protestant for five pounds. E^•en his very children did not 
go unscathed, for they were strictly forbidden to go to any 
school of their own faith. 

700. English Tyranny.— The Irish Catholics however, 
were not the only people in Ireland who had grievances. 
The Irish Protestants also complained, though for far lighter 

465 



466 PROGRESS OF ENGLAND 

and different reasons. The chief ground of their complaint 
was that they were debarred from their due share of poHtical 
power. By the Poyning's act under Henry VIII, no law 
could be passed in the Irish Parliament without the previous 
consent of the English Privy Council ; on the other hand, 
the English Parliament could legislate directly for Ireland. 

701. Economic Discontent. — There was also (great dis- 
content arising from economic causes. The cottier system 
of holding land was then prevalent. By this system, small 
Irish tenants obtained their holdings by competition, the land- 
lord leasing the farm to the man who was willing to pay the 
highest rent. Since land was an absolute necessity the conse- 
quence was that the tenant often agreed to pay a rent which 
he was totally incapable of paying. He thus became reduced 
to a chronic state of distress, while evictions on account of the 
non-payment of rent became frequent. 

702. The Act of Union. — Pitt believed that the only effi- 
cient remedy for these evils was the union of Ireland with 
England, and in 1800 an act was passed to this effect. Hence- 
forth, there was to be only one Parliament for England and 
Ireland, and absolute free trade was established between the 
two countries, but there was still to be a Lord Lieutenant of 
Ireland and there was still to be a separate judicial system. 

After this, it was not long before the Catholics in Ireland 
succeeded in obtaining relief from some of their most crying 
grievances. In 1829 was passed the Catholic Emancipation 
bill. The passing of the bill was mainly owing to the stren- 
uous agitation of the great Daniel O'Connell, a clever law- 
yer, a brilliant orator, and endowed with powers of wit that 
have become proverbial. The opposition was strong; even 
George IV, who had few scruples about anything, had scru- 
ples about this, but the eloquence of O'Connell and the per- 



PARLIAMENTARY REFORM 467 

suasions of the Duke of Wellington, then minister, won the 
day. In 1829 the royal assent was given to the bill. Irish 
Catholics were now admitted to Parliament and to most of 
the higher offices, civil and military. 



703. Parliamentary Reform. — About three years after this, 
there took place in England a parliamentary reform of a most 
important character. 
We have already 
pointed out that in 
the fourteenth cen- 
tury Parliament had 
ceased to represent 
the nation. The dis- 
proportion of repre- 
sentatives sent up by 
north and south, the 
non-representation of 
many cities and bor- 
oughs, and more 
than all the limiting 
of the franchise to 
forty-shilling free- 
holders had been re- 
sponsible for this. 

In after years the Daniel O'Connell. Bom 1775; died 1847. 

want of any true coordination between the Parliament and 
the nation became still more apparent and was productive of 
evil results. The crown or the dominant political party man- 
aged to gain complete control of the elections ; not the will of 
the nation but coercion, corruption, and bribery too often 
decided the course of legislation. 

The Reform^ Bill of 1832 removed this abuse. The main 
provisions of this bill were: 




468 PROGRESS OF ENGLAND 

(a) Small and depopulated towns were no longer allowed 
representation in Parliament, but the new and important 
towns like Manchester, Birmingham, and Leeds were now al- 
lowed to send up a due proportion of representatives. 

(b) The number of members for Scotland was raised 
from forty-five to fifty-three, and the number of members for 
Ireland, from one hundred to one hundred and five. 

(c) The right of suffrage was extended in the counties 
to all freeholders and tenants whose holdings were valued at 
fifty pounds a year, and in the boroughs, to those whose houses 
were valued at ten pounds and upwards a year. 

Besides these political reforms, there were also economic 
and educational reforms. 

704. Reform of the Poor Laws. — The crying grievance at 
that time was the miserable condition of the poor law in Eng- 
land. Idleness and beggary were rewarded instead of being 
punished. Even if a man became poor through sheer idleness 
and vice, he was lodged in a big comfortable house, where 
he was fed, clothed, and lodged far better than many of those 
who had to pay ruinous rates for their support. The poor 
law of 1834 did away with this. It adopted the important 
principle that the condition of the able-bodied pauper should 
be made less desirable than that of the lowest wage earner. 
Henceforth, all able-bodied beggars had to be relieved in the 
work-house, where they had to perform certain allotted tasks. 
The result was that fewer people sought relief and the poor 
rates that had been so high as to threaten the prosperity of the 
country were speedily reduced. Changes were also made in 
the administration of the relief. Parishes sent their poor into 
one common union work-house which was under the manage- 
ment of a board of guardians elected by the people. While 
a great deal of liberty was allowed to the local units of ad- 
ministration, uniformity in general principles was secured by 



THE UNIVERSITIES 469 

entrusting the general supervision of the working of the act 
to a central body at London. 

705. Educational Reform. — As regards education, there 
appeared in 1839 for the first time a system of national edu- 
cation. By this act. all schools in receipt of grants from the 
go\'ernment had to submit to government inspection. In 
1870. this was supplemented by the erection of board schools 
throughout the country. These schools were to be supported 
by the rates from the district in which they were situated and 
attendance at these board schools was made compulsory. 
From that time onward, the great bulk of the people were 
initiated into the mysteries of reading, writing, and arithmetic, 
and in later times the number of subjects taught became quite 
considerable. 

706. The Universities. — The state also extended its activ- 
ity to the centres of higher education. In 1854, the Univer- 
sities of Oxford and Cambridge were reformed and brought 
more into pace with the requirements of modern times. And 
in accordance with the same spirit the custom was gradually 
introduced of having several universities instead of only two. 
Already, in the time of George IV. there was founded the 
University of London. Then, it was only an examining body, 
but during the last few years it has been made a teaching 
body as well. The movement in this direction did not die 
out and during the past fifty years other universities were 
erected, such as the Victoria University and the Universities 
of Birmingham, Sheffield, and Manchester. 

Most of these reforms and changes have been carried out 
during the reign of Victoria. 

Though the legal constitutional power of the British sover- 
eign is strictly limited, yet the character and example of Vic- 
toria always gave a strong and enduring impetus to every un- 
dertaking that went for the general benefit of the nation. 



470 PROGRESS OF ENGLAND 

Not only on several urgent occasions did she give impor- 
tant advice to her ministers but her court, for its purity and 
uprightness became an example to all Europe. 

707. The British Colonial Empire. — Having considered 
the internal progress of England, we must now consider her 
colonial empire, which on account of its vastness, its immense 
material resources, and prudent administration is the most 
successful and unique that the world has yet seen. 

The most important outlying possessions of England at the 
present day are Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand, and 
Africa. All these are allowed practical self-government. But 
there are certain general ties that unite them to the mother 
country; the chief of these are the common sentiment of race 
and tradition. There are also strong commercial ties, since 
most of the colonial trade is carried on with England, and it 
is British capital that forms the chief support of most of the 
industrial enterprises within the colonies. Finally there is a 
judicial bond of connection since the supreme court of appeal 
for the colonies is the judicial committee of the Privy Council 
in England. • ^ 

708. Canada. — When the American colonies revolted from 
England, Canada remained faithful. Indeed, the Quebec act 
which allowed them to retain their own law, aristocracy, and 
religion gave them no excuse for revolt. 

Great troubles arose at first from the strife between the 
French and the English element. The division made by the 
Constitution Act of 1774 between the English Upper Can- 
ada, and the French Lower Canada was certainly ill-advised 
and it only accentuated the separation between the two races. 
The folly of this measure however, was partly undone in 
1840 by following the suggestion of Lord Durham and unit- 
ing Upper and Lower Canada into one province administered 
by only one parliament. 



INDIA 471 

But it was not until 1867 that all troubles were put an 
end to by the formation of the Dominion of Canada. This 
is a federation of the seven provinces, Ontario, Quebec, Nova 
Scotia, New Brunswick, British Columbia, and Prince Ed- 
ward's Island. The federal government consists of a Gov- 
ernor-General, representing the British king, and a legisla- 
ture consisting of a Senate and House of Commons. The 
members of the Senate are appointed by the Governor-Gen- 
eral, while the members of the lower house are elected from 
the several provinces. 

709. India. — British rule in India was extended by several 
wars and by rebellions successfully crushed. In 1843 ^^'^^ 
broke out between the English and the rulers of the Sind in 
the northwest of India, whereupon this country was annexed 
to the British Empire by Sir Charles Napier. Similar wars 
broke out with the Sikhs, a magnificent race of warriors in 
the Punjab, and these wars also resulted in the annexation 
of the Punjab. Finally in 1857, there took place the terri- 
ble Indian mutiny which by the exertions of such distin- 
guished officers as Sir Henry Lawrence, and Sir Henry Have- 
lock was successfully crushed. On this occasion the Gov- 
ernment of India was taken completely out of the hands of 
the East India Company and transferred to the Queen of 
England who in 1876 was created Empress of India. 

710. The Government of India affords an exception to that 
of the other colonies. The Secretary of State for India as- 
sisted by a council of persons who have resided in India, has 
the supreme control of affairs, and the governor-general of 
India with his council is allowed very little initiative. Lately, 
however, owing to excessive home interference this policy has 
been severely criticized and probably at no distant date the 
officials in India will be allowed a greater discretion and a 
wider latitude than they are at present. 



472 PROGRESS OF ENGLAND 

It should be borne in mind however that not all India is 
governed directly by the British government. There are vari- 
ous native states which enjoy a considerable amount of local 
independence though under English control and supervision. 

711. Australia and Nev^^ Zealand. — Between the years 
181 5 and 1850 there grew up the rich and thriving colonies 
of Australia and New Zealand. The sheep-runs and the gold 
mines attracted great crowds of emigrants and the popula- 
tion increased by leaps and bounds. At first, the custom of 
transporting convicts to Australia was the means of intro- 
ducing a military system of government. But as the convict 
system began to die out, a constitutional system of govern- 
ment was introduced. There are five provinces in Australia, 
namely, Queensland, New South Wales. Victoria, South Aus- 
tralia, and West AustraHa. Each of these is ruled by its 
own governor and by two chambers. But the federal prin- 
ciple for several years remained extremely w-eak. Most ab- 
surd prejudices existed between the provinces who in com- 
mercial matters tried to do one another all the harm they 
could. By degrees however, the spirit of disunion is being 
exorcised and the Federal Council of Australia in 1885 and 
the Commonw^ealth of Australia in 1901 have tended to bring 
the provinces together in the closest unity. 

At the present day, Australia is perhaps growang faster 
than any other country in the world. Sydney and Melbourne 
are large flourishing cities and contain buildings that rival 
successfully the proudest in Europe or America. 

712. Africa. — The British possessions in South Africa 
have of late years attracted considerable attention owing to 
the Boer w^ar. After the acquisition of Cape Colony by the 
English, a succession of w^ars combined with skilful treat- 
ment of the conquered natives, to extend British control in 



IMPERIAL FEDERATION 473 

all directions. In 1843, Natal was acquired and made into 
an English colony. In 1853, the Kaffir wars added a con- 
siderable amount of Kaffir land to British territory. In 1879 
war was declared against the Zulus, and this resulted in the 
acquisition of Zululand. Later, large portions of unappro- 
priated xA^frican territory were seized and the rights over 
them handed over to the British South African Company, 
organized by Cecil Rhodes, and finally, during the last few 
years the war against the Boers has ended in giving to the 
English complete control over the important districts of the 
Transvaal and Orange Free States. 

713- Egypt. — In connection with the colonies in South 
Africa, might also be mentioned the British Protectorate of 
Egypt. This is important not only because it controls the 
Suez Canal, the direct and shortest route to India, but also 
because it forms a basis from which to explore central Africa. 
Probably at no distant date there will be direct railroad com- 
munication between northern and southern Africa. 

Such, in a few words is an outline of the most important 
of the British possessions throughout the world. There are 
of course others of less extent and of minor importance, such 
as Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus, and the British settlements in 
China. Altogether, the British possessions cover an area of 
11,421,100 square miles and a population of about 400,000,- 
000. 

714. Imperial Federation. — Of late years, various schemes 
have been propounded for bringing all these scattered lands 
together in closer political unity. The most feasible one seems 
to be that of an internal confederation somewhat resembling 
in its structure the Constitution of the United States. Each 
section of the Empire would manage its own home affairs, 
and all matters affecting the common interest of the whole 



474 PROGRESS OF ENGLAND 

empire would be handled and dealt with by an imperial fed- 
eral council meeting at London. In former times such close 
political union between such scattered lands would have been 
impossible but now steam and electricity have considerably 
done away with the limits of time and space. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Relations between England and Ireland — Catholic Ireland 
under alien oppressors — Penal laws in Ireland — Grievances of 
the Irish Protestants — the Cottier system — Union of England 
and Ireland — Catholics' Emancipation Bill — Parliamentary 
Reform in England — Introduction of the Modern Poor Law 
System — Provision for national education — The Universities 
— England's Colonial Empire — Ties between England and the 
Colonies — Canada — India — Australia and New Zealand — 
Africa — Extent and Area of British Colonies — ■ Prospects of an 
Imperial Colonial Federation. 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

York-Powell and Tout, History of England ; Green, History of Eng- 
land; Walpole, Memoirs of George H ; Theodore Martin, Life of the 
Prince Consort; Stanhope, History of England from Peace of Utrecht; 
Lecky, England in the i8th century; McCarthy, History of Our Own 
Times; Escott, Social Transformations of Victorian Age; Political and 
Private Correspondence of D. O'Connell; Traill, Social England; Payne, 
The Colonies; Jenks, Australian Colonies; Bourinot, Canada under 
British Rule; Seeley, Expansion of England; Jeans, England's Su- 
premacy; Parker, Imperial Federation; Dilke, Problems of Greater 
Britain; Roberts, Forty-one years in India; Todd, Parliamentary Govern- 
ment in British Colonies; Story, British Empire. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

DEVELOPMENTS AND PROGRESS IN THE OTHER LEADING STATES 

OF EUROPE 

715. Political Tendencies of the Nineteenth Century. — 
The revolutionary ideas that had pervaded the thinking classes 
in Europe, combined with the wars of Napoleon to fill almost 
every nation with a spirit of feverish unrest. Everywhere 
could be seen a tendency in the direction of constitutional 
experiments and everywhere the balance of power tended to 
shift more and more from the hands of the few into the 
hands of the many. At the same time the balance of power 
in Europe had been seriously disturbed. As yet it was hard 
to ascertain the exact position and drift of political forces 
and it was only by degrees that nations gradually formed 
themselves into new and evenly balanced groups and alliances. 
We will now consider in detail, the corresponding changes 
that took place in Europe after the eventful overthrow of 
Napoleon in 181 5. 

France 

716. France Under Louis XVIII. — The Congress of 
Vienna, which in Sept., 18 14, restored the old Bourbon 
dynasty to France, placed Louis XVIII upon the French 
throne. The power of the people and the recent terrors of 
the revolution were still fresh in his mind and the early years 
of his reign were distinguished for the broad liberality of his 
administration. The charter which he promulgated allowed 
some of the main elements of popular government. While 
the House of Peers was to be filled by the king's choice, there 
was to be a lower house duly elected by the people, which 

476 



REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 477 

was to have complete control over taxation. Such funda- 
mental principles as free speech, religious liberty, and equal- 
ity before the laws were finally confirmed. 

During the latter years of his reign, however, he yielded 
more and more to the demands of the reactionary conserva- 
tive party which was rapidly growing in strength. Upon his 
death in 1824, his brother Charles X succeeded, and threw 
himself heart and soul into the cause of the conservative party. 

717. Reaction Under Charles X. — From 1820 to 1830 the 
work of the revolution was undone piece by piece. The 
franchise was practically restricted to the wealthy landown- 
ers; influential appointments were confined as far as possible 
to those of conservative tendencies, and Charles formally an- 
nounced that he regarded the legislature merely as an ad- 
\isory council. The nation began to raise its voice, and the 
overwhelming majority of liberals that were returned to the 
Chamber of Deputies ought to have shown him the danger 
of his position. But the infatuous monarch disregarded the 
warning, and by a series of edicts, suspended the constitu- 
tion. 

At once, Paris was in revolt. Once more the barricades 
were erected in the streets and throngs of armed men shouted, 
" Down with the Bourbons." A hasty meeting of some of 
the members of the legislature was held in the Hotel de Ville, 
and chiefly by the influence of Lafayette, it was decided to 
offer the throne to Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, who ac- 
cordingly became king in 1830. 

718. Louis Philippe, however, was first obliged to accept 
the charter which had been granted by Louis XVIII, and 
also some important supplementary laws. The most impor- 
tant changes thus effected were as follows. The clause in 
the charter concerning the divine right of kings was omitted, 



478 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 

the legislatures were allowed to introduce bills, and the fran- 
chise was considerably widened, so as to include all who paid 
forty dollars annually in taxes. 

719. Conservative Policy. — But it soon became clear that 
the democratic impetus given by the revolution would not be 
satisfied with a constitutional monarchy. Ideas of popular 
government gained in strength, but during the last eight years 
of Philip's reign the government was administered by Guizot, 
who headed the party of resistance to the march of democracy. 
The most salutary measures of reform were introduced into 
the Legislatures, only to be rejected one after another by the 
ministry. Nor was this all. By trying to control the elec- 
tions, he sought to do away with the representative character 
of the Lower House. The new elections, so far from show- 
ing the mind of the people by an overwhelming liberal ma- 
jority, returned a majority of conservatives. 

Revolutions had become easy by habit. Again the barri- 
cades were erected. Again a few members of the legislature 
met together, and this time appointed a committee called " The 
Provisional Government," whose duty it was to call into ex- 
istence a new regime. 

720. Louis Napoleon President. — After many heated dis- 
cussions, and perhaps under pressure from the outside mob, 
the committee abolished the House of Peers, established man- 
hood suffrage, and declared a Republic. Some of the ele- 
ments of the New Constitution were borrowed from that of 
the United States. Among the members of the new ministry 
was Lamartine, the great French poet, who became foreign 
minister, and at the presidential election, Louis Napoleon 
Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon the Great, was chosen presi- 
dent. 

Napoleon seems to have had a great deal of the ambition 



NAPOLEON III 479 

and versatility in using ways and means that had characterized 
his illustrious ancestor. Though he had sworn to be faith- 
ful to the constitution, he plotted against it from the very 
beginning. The growing unpopularity of the assembly, and 
the favor which Napoleon found with the Bourgeoise. were 
powerful circumstances in his side. Napoleon was also active 
in his own behalf. He carefully fanned the general hostility 
against the assembl}- and placed all the important posts in 
the army in the hands of his friends and confidants. 

721. Louis Napoleon Becomes Emperor. — On the night 
of December the _'d, 185 1, the Republican (ioxernment was 
suddenly overturned. The assembly was dispersed and by 
popular vote, Napoleon was made president for ten years, 
with dictatorial power. All this, as read in the light of prece- 
dent could have but one meaning, and in 1852, Napoleon be- 
came Emperor of the French. 

We now enter upon the period of the Second Empire, which 
though less brilliant than the First Empire, closely resembled 
it in many leading features. Napoleon became the active su- 
preme head of the nation. It was a period of personal rule, 
during which Napoleon was responsible to no one and every 
one responsible to him ; the legislature and the press were 
entirely at his service, and for the time, the cause of popular 
liberty seemed to have been lost. But France had for the 
time, what she sorely needed — a strong government which 
secured to her a period of commercial prosperity and of gen- 
eral diffusion of wealth and comfort throughout all classes 
of the community. 

It was the foreign policy of Napoleon that ultimately 
brought about his downfall. 

722. War with Germany. — In a previous chapter, it has 
already been pointed out that the Franco-German war was 



480 PROGRFSS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 

forced upon Napoleon III by Bismarck, but that the whole 
plan was so skilfully arranged that the odium of declaring 
war was thrust upon France. It is clear, however, that Napo- 
leon thought that France was better prepared for war than 
Germany, and that a campaign would be easily and quickly 
won. But there was also the additional reason that Napo- 
peon had discovered, by the returns of the elections that his 
popularity was waning, and urged on by his wife, he deter- 
mined to stake all upon the issue of a successful war (1870). 
The event did not justify his expectations. The French 
did not realize that the Germans wer" determined not on a 
war of defense but of offense. The surrender of 83,000 men 
at Sedan, the still more disastrous surrender at Metz, and 
the capitulation of Paris, place France under the heel of the 
invader. Napoleon had played his last card and failed. The 
treaty by which France sacrificed to Germany Alsace and 
Lorraine, withdrew from Napoleon the last vestige of popu- 
larity. A revolutionary form of government was set up and 
the mob destroyed some of the most notable buildings in 
Paris. Napoleon was forced to flee. For a time, a provi- 
sional government under Thiers, administered the country, 
but the quarrels among the different party leaders, at length 
drove him from oftice. In 1873, the provisonal government 
came to an end and the Third Republic was set up and is 
the form of government in France at the present day. 

723. The Third Republic. — The most conspicuous fea- 
tures of this present French Republic are as follows : ( a ) 
A national assembly consisting of two houses, a Senate, and 
a Chamber of Deputies. The Senators are elected by Elec- 
toral Colleges in the different departments and hold office of 
three years. The deputies are elected by universal suffrage, 
and in the proportion of one deputy to every 70.000 inhab- 
itants. The two chambers sit apart for ordinary purposes, 



FRENCH POLITICS 481 

but meet together for the revision of the Constitution and 
for the election of the President, which takes place every 
seven years, (b) The second element of the present consti- 
tution is the President, who as we have said is elected by the 
chambers in joint session. The President has the power of 
dissolving the Chamber of Deputies and of returning bills 
for consideration, but instead of being the master of the Cabi- 
net, is rather its servant, (c) The local government of 
France underwent no change, and still remains what it was 
during the First Republic. The chief divisions of local gov- 
ernment are the Departments, Arrondissements, Cantons, 
Communes. These different units enjoy very little local 
power and are absolutely subordinated to the central govern- 
ment. 

This Constitution such as we have briefly outlined, has sat- 
isfied the aspirations of France for the last thirty-six years. 
It has stood successfully very severe tests. The intrigues of 
the Monarchists and Bonapartists, and for a time, the hos- 
tility of the Church, have been against it. Also the educa- 
tional question and the relations between the government and 
the Church are problems that still remain to be solved. The 
late separation between Church and state by the abolition of 
the Concordat, may have had the effect of alienating from 
the government, a considerable class of its supporters. But 
the interests of the different sections hostile to the govern- 
ment are all so divergent that it hardly seems likely that at 
present, they will coalesce for the purpose of any revolution- 
ary change. 

Belgium and Holland. 

724. Character of the Two Peoples. — When Napoleon the 
Great had received his final overthrow, the Kingdoms of Bel- 
gium and Holland were united into one kingdom, under Wil- 
liam I, a prince of the House of Orange. The arrangement 



482 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 

was singularly unfortunate. It ignored the tendencies that 
had been mapped out by past history and by the religion and 
character of the peoples. The Teutonic character of the 
Dutch and the Romance tendencies of the Belgians, united 
with the Protestantism of the northern Provinces and the 
Catholicism of the southern, to form barriers that were in- 
superable to any kind of pacific union. Even the occupations 
of the peoples were different, for while Holland was a trad- 
ing country, Belgium had been from time immemorial, a man- 
ufacturing community. 

Nor was any care taken to make the union less odious. 
William I was exclusively a Dutchman and was not inclined 
to make any allowance for natural proclivities of his southern 
subjects. The result was a condition of profound dissatis- 
faction and a union of the clerical and disaffected political 
forces which at any moment, might prove most formidable. 

725. Revolution in Belgium. — The spark w^as kindled by 
the revolution that broke out in Paris when Charles X was 
driven from the throne (1830). At once, Brussels rose in 
revolt. A provisional government w^as formed, and for the 
sake of order, a national guard was placed in charge of the 
capital. Negotiations were opened w^ith the government of 
the Netherlands. The Prince of Orange was sent to tempo- 
rize with the malcontents. Personally, he was disposed to 
grant concessions of so complete a nature, that all causes of 
complaint would be removed. Unfortunately the States- 
General failed to pass the measure. 

The Belgians thereupon resorted to force. The Dutch gar- 
risons were expelled and the whole Belgian army was pre- 
pared to defend the national cause. 

Belgium soon became the center of European politics. Rus- 
sia was inclined to favor the cause of William, while England, 
owing to motives of commerce, was more inclined to favor the 



CONGRESS AT BRUSSELS 483 

independence of Belgium. The other countries of Europe 
were also interested, partly on account of the danger of the 
still further spread of revolutionary principles, and partly on 
account of the danger to the balance of power. 

726. An International Congress now met at Brussels, 
and the first result of its deliberations was to acknowledge the 
independence of Belgium as a separate state. It was then 
arranged that the government should take the form of a mon- 
archy. But here the question rose as to who should fill the 
throne. There were many material ties between the French 
and the Belgians, but the acceptance of the throne by a French 
king would have been a standing menace to the balance of 
power, and distasteful to the other powers. The choice of 
the Belgians eventually fell upon Prince Leopold of Coburg, 
a prudent and moderate statesman. 

The Dutch protested and endeavored to enforce their pro- 
test. An invading army penetrated into the country and 
forced Leopold to fly to Mechlin. But England and France 
speedily intervened. While an English fleet menaced the 
coasts of Holland, a French army besieged the town of Ant- 
werp. Immediate danger at home compelled the Dutch army 
to retire from Belgian territory, and William eventually had 
to accept the arrangements of the Congress by a definite 
treaty (1831). 

727. The Belgian Constitution as set up and as it still re- 
mains provides for a limited monarchy. Besides the king, 
there is a Senate and a Lower House. Both the Senators 
and Representatives are chosen by the same electors. The 
Senators are elected for eight years, the representatives for 
four years. At the elections, the chambers are renewed by 
one half. Laws may be introduced in either the Upper or 
the Lower House, but bills for raising money must appear 
first in the House of Representatives. 



484 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 

The king fills up all the offices, ministerial, civil, and mili- 
tary. He appoints the judge, who cannot be removed except 
by judgment in open court. The king has also control over 
the foreign policy of the nation, and he is entrusted with the 
task of seeing that the laws are properly enforced. 

Only one defect in the constitution remained to be corrected 
and that was the limitation of the franchise. At first, there 
was a heavy property qualification. This was afterwards re- 
moved by a law providing for universal suffrage, with the very 
useful amendment that additional votes should be given to 
those possessed of a certain amount of wealth or education. 

728. The Constitution of Holland still remains what it 
was in 18 15. It is a limited monarchy and presents some 
points of resemblance to that of Great Britain. There are 
two legislative chambers, the members of the Upper Chamber 
being appointed by the king for life, and the members of the 
Lower Chamber being elected by the assemblies of the prov- 
inces. The executive force is placed in the hands of the king, 
the succession being allowed to go to females only in default 
of male heirs. 

Spain and Portugal 

729. The Bourbon Restoration. — The overthrow of Napo- 
leon meant the restoration of the Bourbons, not only to the 
throne of France, but also to that of Spain, in the person of 
Ferdinand VII. The old Bourbon tendencies speedily showed 
themselves. The constitution that had been framed in 18 12, 
was swept away and personal rule substituted in its place. 
He dissolved the Cortes, and abrogated their constitution, 
established the Inquisition, restored to the nobles all their 
old privileges, and filled the prisons with patriotic liberals. 

730. Ferdinand VII. — At the same time, the finances of 
the country were in a ruinous condition. But instead of di- 



SPANISH POLITICS 485 

recting his time and attention to the true sources of wealth, 
such as trade and manufactures, Ferdinand squandered large 
sums of money in seeking to recover the Spanish colonies 
that had revolted during the Bonapartist regime. Even in 
this object he failed. His tyrannical instincts alienated still 
further the colonies, so that by 1823, Buenos Aires, Chili, 
Peru, Colombia, and Mexico became independent states and 
were recognized as such by the United States. 

At last, the standard of revolt was raised in Spain and the 
liberal party compelled the king to accept the constitution of 
1 81 2. Just, however, when the revolutionary party appeared 
supreme, France, with the consent of the European powers, 
intervened and released the king from his captivity by the 
Cortes and established peace and order. 

The remaining years of the reign of Ferdinand were peace- 
ful, and were undisturbed by any question save that of the 
succession. He had only one child, a daughter, who by the 
Salic law, was prevented frcnn ascending the throne. Ferdi- 
nand tried to solve the difficulty by abolishing the Salic law. 
To this, Don Carlos, the king's brother and otherwise the 
next heir, strongly objected. The death of Ferdinand was 
the signal for strife, and at once the throne was disputed be- 
tween Isabella, for whom Christina, the queen acted as regent, 
and Don Carlos. The former was supported by the liberal, 
and the latter by the conservative or reactionist party. 

731. Party Strife. — The liberal party triumphed and in 
1850, Don Carlos was driven from the country. But peace 
was not yet. Even during the conflict with Don Carlos, the 
liberals had been fighting among themselves. The cause of 
dissension being that Christina had replaced the old constitu- 
tion by a new one of a more conservative character. In the 
very year of triumph over the common enemy, Christina was 
compelled to resign her office of regent in favor of Espartero, 



486 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 

a Progressionist General. His victory, however, was short- 
lived. When Isabella became of age, Christina returned from 
exile and the partizans of the conservative constitution now 
held the reins of power. 

The character of Isabella was unfitted for a position where 
a respectable and commanding character was more than ever 
necessary. The dissoluteness of her private life, and her strong" 
reactionary tendencies soon provoked a revolution. Isabella 
was driven from the throne (1868), and an interregnum took 
place, during which the crown was offered unsuccssfully to 
various persons. At length, Amadeus, the Italian Duke of 
Aosta accepted the position. He however was soon glad to 
resign, and for two years Spain was governed by a republic, 
with Castelar at the head. Even this experiment proved a 
failure and as a last measure for the restoration of order, the 
crown was offered to Alfonso XII. From that time, till the 
present, the restored monarchy seems to have given reasonable 
satisfaction, though the prospect of a revolution in behalf of 
the exiled Carlists is a constant menace to the permanence uf 
the present dynasty. 

732. The Constitution of Spain consists of a monarch and 
two chambers, namely, a Senate and Congress. Half of the 
Senators are elected, the other half are appointed for life; 
the members of the lower house are elected by universal suf- 
frage. 

733. The History of Portugal, from 181 5, presents during 
its early stages, a remarkable parallel with that of Spain. 

The revolution in Spain which drove out Ferdinand VII 
produced a similar revolution in Portugal. Owing to the 
occupation of Portugal by the French, the seat of government 
was transferred from Portugal to Brazil, which was one of 
the most important of the Portuguese colonies. It was not 



AFFAIRS IN PORTUGAL 487 

long before the revolutionary movement spread from Portugal 
to Brazil. This double revolution forced King John to re- 
sign the administration of Brazil into the hands of his son 
Pedro, while he himself returned to Lisbon. Brazil quickly- 
declared its independence of the mother country and Don 
Pedro was proclaimed emperor. 

In the meantime. King John was forced to accept the radi- 
cal constitution that had been drawn up in 1820, shortly after 
the revolution in Portugal. 

On the death of King John in 1824, the crown was forcibly 
seized and held by Miguel, the youngest son, for six years. 
After this, it passed into the hands of the daughter of the 
emperor, Pedro. This caused a change in Brazil. Then Don 
Pedro abdicated the throne in favor of his son. Pedro II., 
while he himself went to Portugal, to act as regent for his 
daughter. The throne has remained in possession of this 
dynasty, though up to the middle of the nineteenth century. 
there was a great deal of internal strife, further complicated 
by the Carlist risings in Spain. 

734. The Present Constitution of Portugal provides for an 
hereditary monarchy with which resides the executive power of 
government, while the legislative power resides in an Upper 
and a Lower Chamber. The members of the Upper Chamber 
take their seats in some cases by appointment in other cases 
by election, while the deputies of the Lower House are elected 
by the people. The senators hold office for life, while the 
deputies vacate their seats every four years. 

The Anstro-Hungarian Empire 

735. Racial Division. — The battle of Sadowa (1866), in 
which the Austrians were so badly beaten by Italy convinced 
the .\ustrian emperor, Francis Joseph, of the need of further 



488 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 

consolidating and strengthening his empire. It is necessary 
to remember that the Austrian empire then comprised, as it 
does now, many nationalities. But the chief lines of cleavage 
lie between the Germans in Austria proper, and the inhabit- 
ants of Hungary and Bohemia. All efforts to Germanize 
these provinces had failed ; they still hungered for local in- 
dependence and rejoiced at the humiliation of Austria. 

736. The Dual Monarchy. — Some change was absolutely 
necessary. But Francis Joseph, who was true to the old 
Hapsburg motto of " divide and rule," instead of forming a 
solidly united nation, created two different centers of gravity 
in Austria and Hungary. He instituted a dual-monarchy, 
united together under the one emperor of Austria. Both 
countries were to have their own parliaments which should 
deal with local affairs. All foreign, military, and naval af- 
fairs were to be dealt with by two delegations, each consisting 
of sixty members, chosen respectively by the Austrian and 
Hungarian parliaments. By a curious arrangement, the dele- 
gations could not discuss matters viva voce, but were to ex- 
change their views in writing, and even when they did meet, it 
was to vote only in silence. 

In this compact, there is technically speaking no Austria; 
the w'ords, " Hungary " and " Austria-Hungary," are dis- 
tinctly stated, but Austria is spoken of as the " Countries rep- 
resented in the Reichsrath." the Reichsrath consisting of the 
representatives sitting in the parliament of Vienna having no 
connection with the Hungarian parliament. 

It would be nearer the truth, therefore, to speak of the 
empire of Hungary, than of the empire of Austria. Indeed, 
not only is Hungary a definite unit with a living and growing 
organism of its own, but it is an empire both by the compact 
that was made by Francis Joseph, and also by the powers that 
were given to it under Pope Sylvester 11, 



FORCES OF DISUNION 489 

737. Forces of Disunion. — The compromise by which 
Francis Joseph admitted Hungary into an imperial dual part- 
nership, has proved most detrimental both to the dual-mon- 
archy as a whole and to each of the partners. There is no 
common center of government, and no force to weld together 
the conflicting interests of the empire. Instead of imitating 
the bold policy of the Hohenzollerns, in expanding outward 
from one common center. Francis Joseph created two differ- 
ent centers with different activities of their own. All the 
heterogeneous elements in the empire are suffered to exercise 
their own activity independently of one another. Tlie differ- 
ent languages that are spoken, are in themselves a bar to unity. 
Even the very army is weakened by the fact that the words 
of command are not understood by those to whom they are 
spoken. 

At present, the only apparent bond of cohesion seems to be 
the emperor, who has endeared himself to all. When he 
vanishes, the Austro-Hungarian empire will most probably 
undergo disruption. In such a case, the different races com- 
posing the empire would naturally be absorbed into those 
powers with which they have most affinity. 

In spite of the present confusion, it must be remembered 
that both in Austria and in Hungary the principles of repre- 
sentative democratic government have fully asserted them- 
selves. Whatever difficulties there are. arise from the in- 
compatible union of different races and the preservation of 
customs that tend to perpetuate, rather than soften disunion. 
The fatal mistake was made when Austria, with her own 
provinces still disorganized, attempted to play an imperial 
policy. The result was, that Austria, the weaker portion, 
has become a mere annex of Hungary, which has all the unity 
and all the training and institutions but lacks only the ma- 
chinery of a real empire. 



490 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 

Russia 

738, The Russian Advance in Europe. — The part that had 
been taken Ijy Russia in the overthrow of Napoleon, showed 
that henceforth Russia was going to become an active factor 
in Europcau poh'tics. As the victory of Peter the Great over 
vSwedeu iu a war of defence was followed by an active policy 
in l-'urope itself, so the success of Czar Alexander at Moscow, 
was followed by an active propagandist policy in Eastern 
Europe. 

When Alexander died, in 1825, he was succeeded by his 
younger brother Nicholas. The new emperor, unlike his 
predecessors, from the time of Peter the Great, was an ardent 
lover of the old Russian institutions and did his best to shut 
out all European influences. But, together with this con- 
servati\e policy at home, Nicholas combined aggressive de- 
signs on Turkey for purposes of a self-aggrandizement in 
the Balkan States. Taking advantage of an insurrection in 
Turkey, and of the defenceless condition that followed, he 
forced the Sultan to consent to the independence of Servia, 
tt) allow Russia to occupy the fortresses on the east coast of 
the Black Sea, and to allow Russian ships to enter the waters 
under the jurisdiction of Turkey. 

739. Revolt of Greece. — Yet another opportunity for in- 
tervention was afforded by the revolt of Greece from Turkey. 
The Turks, in order to crush the rebellion, began to ravage 
the Morea of southern Greece. Thereupon, England, France, 
and Russia, combined their fleets together and at the battle 
of Navarino, 1S27, destroyed the entire Turkish fleet and 
made the independence of Greece an accomplished fact. A 
conference in London provided that Greece should be a con- 
stitutional monarchy, and offered the crown to Prince Leopold 
of Saxenburg. The oft'cr was declined and Otto, the younger 



CRIMEAN WAR 491 

son of the king of Bavaria, was placed upon the throne. 
Otto's excessive German tendencies soon caused a revolution 
and a new king was elected in the person of Prince George, 
second son of the king of Denmark. The next event in the 
reign of Nicholas, was the Polish revolt, 1830. B}- the Con- 
gress of \'ienna, Poland had been erected into a kingdom 
under the Russian Grand Duke Constantine. The constitu- 
tion was utterly unsuited to the needs of the people and the 
French Revolution of 1830. caused a similar rising in Poland. 
The results were disastrous. The Poles, as ever, were 
divided among themselves, and the advance of the Russian 
was one long triumphal march. Pt^land soon became a Rus- 
sian T'rovince. 

740. The Crimean War. — 'J he great event in the reign 
of Nicholas was the Crimean war. This war was the effect 
of Nicholas's determination to partition Turkey and thus ex- 
tend Russian influence over the Balkan countries. The imme- 
diate cause of the war was, that Nicholas insisted on being 
the protector of the Greek Christians throughout the Turkish 
Empire. The claim was refused by the Sultan. Russia then 
presented an ultimatum and on this being rejected, Russian 
troops occupied the provinces of Moldavia and of \\'allachia 
as security for the obtainment of their request. This was 
clearly an act of war. Then the Sultan appealed to France 
and England and the three powers together now warred on 
Russia. The league was afterwards joined by Sardinia, anx- 
ious to obtain a recognized place among European powers 

(1853). 

The scene of the war was in the Crimea. The main inci- 
dents were the battles of Balaklava and Inkermann, at the 
former of which took place the celebrated charge of the 
British Light Brigade, so well known from Tennyson's poem. 
One very important episode was the appearance of the Eng- 



492 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 

lish nurse, Florence Nightingale, who first introduced into 
warfare the present organized system of nursing that has done 
so much to assuage the horrors of war. 

741. Treaty of Paris. — During the war, the emperor 

Nicholas died, Both sides were now weary of the contest, 
and in 1859, was signed the Treaty of Paris. The chief 
terms were as follows: (a) The guarantee of the independ- 
ence and integrity of Turkey, (b) Moldavia anil W'al- 
lachia, to be ruled by separate princes elected by the assemblies 
of the respective countries, (c) The Black Sea was de- 
clared neutral, (d) The Sultan w-as to be the protector of 
the Christians of the Turkish Empire. 

742. Alexander II. — The successor of Nicholas was Alex- 
ander II. He was a monarch of humane and most liberal 
tendencies. He not only sought to give Russia a better sys- 
tem of justice and to set on foot some kind of local self- 
government, but he issued the " Emancipation Code," which 
gave liberty to forty-six millions of Russian serfs. Till then 
the Russian serf, like some of the old medieval serfs, was 
absolutely tied down to the soil, and were obliged to work, 
not only on the village lands, but also on the lands of their 
lord. 

But the Emancipation Code gave the serfs their freedom 
and making them legal tenants of the lands which they tilled, 
declared that the rent could be paid in labor or in money. 
Even this tenantship might be converted into freehold posses- 
sion by the payment of a sum of money. 

743. Russo-Turkish War. — In 1877, war again broke out 
between Russia and Turkey. Whatever might have been the 
good intentions of the Sultan, the tyranny of the official 
oligarchy, who w^ere the rulers, became intolerable. The 



BERLIX CONGRESS 493 

Greek Christians rose in revolt, and the Turks retaHated by 
the notorious Bulgarian atrocities. Not only Russia but the 
whole of Europe was aflame with indignation. The Rus- 
sians being allowed a passage through Roumania, entered 
the provinces under Turkish rule. Plevna was taken and a 
few days later, the fortress of Kars in Asia, shared the same 
fate. It is difficult to foresee what might have taken place, 
had not England interfered, by sending a fleet through the 
Dardanelles, which stayed the progress of the Russians and 
brought on negotiations for peace. 

744. Congress of Berlin. — In 1878, a Congress was held 
at Berlin which attempted a definite settlement of long stand- 
ing Eastern question. The independence of Roumania, Ser- 
via, and Alontenegro, was confirmed. Bosnia and Herze- 
govina were placed under the care of Austria. Bulgaria was 
divided into three parts of which the northern part alone 
secured complete independence, the middle portion being partly 
dependent on Turkey and the southern part entirely so. Also, 
the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles were to be closed to all 
foreign ships of war — an important proviso in case of any 
European complications. 

745. Present Condition of Russia. — The Emperor Alex- 
ander was assassinated in ]March 1881, and was succeeded 
by Alexander III, after whom came Nicholas II (1894). 
The reigns of these monarchs have been marked by the ad- 
vance of liberal principles among the great mass of the Rus- 
sian people. These principles have been constantly resisted 
not so much by the obstinacy of the emperors themselves, as 
by the oligarchy, which while professing to administer in 
the name of the emperor, control in effect both emperor and 
people. In very recent times, however, a liberal constitution 
of a very restricted character has been granted to the Rus- 



494 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 

sian people. But the peasants and the lower classes gener- 
ally are still very ignorant and the party of reaction is strong. 
The only saving element seems to be the intellect and the 
patriotism of the professional classes, and this element will 
probably become the saving element in Russian politics. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY. 

Introduction — Reign of Louis XVIII in France — Accession 
of Charles X — A reaction in direction of conservative mon- 
archism — Revolution in Paris and accession of Philippe, Duke 
of Orleans — The charter granted by Louis Philippe — Strong 
democratic movements — Another revolution and establishment 
of a second republic — The coup d'etat and accession of Louis 
Napoleon as Emperor — Reign of Louis Napoleon — His for- 
eign policy — ^ Defeat of France at the hands of Germany — 
Overthrow of Louis Napoleon and establishment of the Third 
Republic — Present Constitution of France — Union of Belgium 
and Holland under William I — Revolution in Brussels — Bel- 
gium becomes the center of European politics — International 
congress and accession of Leopold I to the Belgian throne — 
Present constitution of Belgium — Present constitution of Hol- 
land — ■ Reign of Ferdinand VII of Spain — Revolt of the Spanish 
colonies — Question of the Spanish succession — Triumph of the 
liberal party — Reign of Isabella — Again another revolution — 
Accession of Alphonsus XII — Present constitution of Spain — 
Revolution in Portugal — Separation of Brazil from Portugal — 
Don Pedro Emperor of Brazil — His abdication in favor of his 
youngest son — Present constitution of Portugal — Racial di- 
visions in Austria-Hungary — Formation of the Dual monarchy 
under Francis Joseph — Meaning of the Dual Empire — Results 
of the Dual Empire — Principles of representative government — 
Russia's policy of expansion inaugurated by Peter the Great — 
Accession of Nicholas I — His policy at home and abroad — 
Destruction of Turkey's fleet at the battle of Navarino — Inde- 
pendence of Greece under Prince Otto — Dethronement of Otto 
followed by accession of Prince George of Denmark — Absorp- 
tion of Poland by Russia — Crimean war — Treaty of Paris of 
1859 — Accession of Alexander II — ^ Reforms of Alexander II 
T- War between Russia and Turkey — Congress of Berlin in 
1878 — Accession of Alexander III and present condition of 
Russia. 



REFERENCES 495 

GENERAL REFERENCE. 

Philips, Modern Europe; Combertin, Evolution of France under the 
Third Republic; Hanotaux, Contemporary France; Thiers, Discours; 
Louis Blanc, Organization of Work; Helie, Les Constitutions de la 
France; Chateaubriand, Memoirs; Lebon, Modern France; Gambetta, 
Correspondence ; Jerrold, Life of Napoleon III; Adams, Growth of 
French Nation; Murdoch, Reconstruction of Europe; Seignobos, Europe 
since 1814; Lavelaye, Le Parti clerical en Belgigue; Woerste, Tiventy 
Years of Polemics; Blok, History of the People of the Netherlands; 
Lowell, Goz'ernmcnts and Parties in Continental Europe ; Hume, Modern 
Spain; Hanway, Castelar ; Latimer, Spain in the jgth century; Hough- 
ton, Origin of Restoration of the Bourbons in Spain; Pirala, Contem- 
porary Spam; Prunel, Souvenirs de voyage en Espagne et en Portugal; 
Stroebel, Spanish Revolution of 1868-1874; Gabrieil Ferry, Les Revolu- 
tions du Mexique; Southey, History of Brazil; Andrews, Historical 
Development of Modern Europe; Leger, History of Austria-Hungary ; 
Seignobos, Europe since J814; Beust, Memoirs, Correspondence between 
Grun and Frankl; Muller, Recent Times; Leroy Beaulieu, Awakening 
of the East; Noble, Russia and the Russians; Rambaud, History of Rus- 
sia; Skrine, Expansion of Russia; Stepiak, Russian Peasants; Helluald, 
Russians in Central Asia; Fyffe, Europe; Smith, Greece under King 
George; McCarthy, History of Our Own Times; Kinglake, Invasion of 
the Crimea. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

SOME TYPICAL FEATURES OF THE XIX CENTURY 

746. Political Tendencies. — Besides the leading political 
events that have taken place in every country in Europe, 
there are distinctly visible certain general political tendencies 
that are independent of any national barriers. During the 
modern period of history, the isolation that had characterized 
the medieval state has been gradually diminishing almost 
to the vanishing point. At the present day, the destiny of 
a nation must be conjectured, not only by what is in the 
nation itself, but also from general forces and tendencies that 
are affecting alike the whole of Europe. 

747. The Principle of Balance of Power asserted itself 
even from the descent of Charles VIII into Italy; it became 
stronger during the wars of Louis XIV. and at the present 
day is a dominant factor in European politics. From the 
Franco-German war up till very recently, the alliances that 
have constituted the balance of power in Europe are the 
Triple Alliances and the Dual Alliances. The former is an 
alliance between Germany, Austria, and Italy, and the latter 
is formed between France and Russia. After the Berlin Con- 
gress, Bismarck discovered that his support of certain claims 
of Austria in the Balkans had deeply offended Russia; he 
accordingly advised the emperor to form an alliance with 
Austria, which had already been drawn into the misunder- 
standing. Italy had a grievance against France and entered 
the league, thus completing the Triple Alliance. Shortly 
afterward France and Russia being afifected by a common in- 
terest and a common danger also entered into partnership and 

496 



498 TYPICAL FEATURES OF THE XIX CENTURY 

formed a counterbalancing Dual Alliance. For a time, when 
England viewed with jealousy the use of French influence in 
northern Africa and found herself on terms of cordial inti- 
macy with Italy, there seemed a prospect of forming a quad- 
ruple alliance. But this did not take place, and England for 
many years consistently maintained an attitude of isolation, 
but she has in recent times been close! '^ drawn toward the 
United States and Japan. 

748. European Colonies. — Another general factor that has 
to be reckoned with in European politics is the colonizing 
activity that has been displayed by the different European 
countries. Thus. France has acquired in northern Africa, the 
fertile lands of Algeria and a protectorate over Tunis. 
She also holds possession of Senegal and the island of 
Madagascar, and has developed important trade connections 
in southern China. Germany has also acquired in Africa 
considerable colonial interests and has established there, im- 
portant protectorates, most of which are well adapted for 
European settlements. Still more significant is the success 
of the German colonial policy in Asia Minor and even in 
China. The chief elements in the success of Germany seem 
to have been the activity and shrewdness of her trading agents 
and the quickness with which she opens up new lines of com- 
merce. Russia again has been constantl}- expanding, not so 
much in a westerly, as in an easterly direction. In northern 
Persia and up till lately in the extreme eastern part of Asia 
at Port Arthur, Russian influence had been slowly and power- 
fully asserting itself. And lately in southern Persia she is 
menacing English interests. Italy also has interests in north- 
ern Africa, notably in the Massowah district and in the protec- 
torate of the Somaliland. Even Belgium has acquired in 
Africa a portion of the Congo district, remarkable for the 
fertility of its soil. By the Berlin conference, in 1885, this 



I 



i 




N 



powEBs or 

THE WORLD 

I j Oreat Britain \ [ UniM Statu P^3*P<""> 

I t **"""* I \Ptirtufat }^' ^ Holland 

I \ 0*rmant \ \ ltixly \ [ ginria 



Etit to rron 



Orefowich 80 



ECONOMIC CHANGES 499 

Belgian portion of the Congo district was organized into a 
Congo kingdom, with Leopold II as sovereign. 

All these European expansions are full of deep significance 
for the future. Perhaps the world will again see the rise of 
more colonial empires resembling that of the English. But 
it must be carefully remembered that although many seem to 
l)e in the race, there are only a few nations that are possessed 
of the peculiar qualities necessary for the formation of a great 
colonial empire. 

749. The Principle of Arbitration. — Another conspicuous 
element in international politics is the principle of arbitration, 
in 1898. at the initiative of the Russian minister for foreign 
affairs, a general conference was held at the Hague, for the 
purpose of limiting the excessive armament of the different 
nations and for the purpose of establishing a permanent tribu- 
nal for the peaceful adjudication of disputes. It cannot be 
said that in practice its success has been very complete. But 
the attempt marks the growing acceptance of the principle 
of arbitration, and may be taken as an evident sign of the 
increased solidarity of the nations of the world. 

750. Economic Changes. — Besides these political features 
of the nineteenth century, we must nf)t fail to observe tlie 
remarkable progress that has been made in economic and 
social conditions. 

Owing to the increased means of communication after the 
invention of the railway engines, and the use of steam in 
propelling ships, the markets of the world ha\'e become con- 
siderably widened. Merchants have now to consider not only 
the demands of consumers in their own country, but of those 
who live in the most distant parts of the world. Together 
with increased facilities of transportation there are also 
numerous inventions that multiply indefinitely the production 



500 TYPICAL FEATURES OF THE XIX CENTURY 

of goods. The flying shuttle, invented by Kay in 1753, the 
water- frame by Arkwright in 1767. the spinning jenny by 
Hargraves in 1770, and the mule by Crompton in 1779, all 
these have indefinitely increased the speed of the output and 
have worked a revolution in the world of labor and industrial 
competition. 

751. The Factory System. — One of the most important 
results has been the substitution of the factory system for the 
domestic system. Hitherto, goods were wrought by single 
workmen or by small groups of workmen. The goods were 
hand-made and many of them went through all the different 
processes of manufacture under the same hands. There was 
also a close relationship existing between the employer and 
his men. 

All this was changed by the new and powerful inventions 
that revolutionized the production and transit of goods. The 
factory system came into existence with its hundreds and its 
thousands working under a hierarchy of trained officials. 
The old personal relations between employer and employee 
could exist no longer; everything had now to be run on the 
lines of strict business. From henceforth the same piece 
of goods is under the manipulation not of one man only but 
of several, each process in the manufacture being carried out 
in its own special department. 

Such a system has its merits and its demerits. It is not 
nowadays that we find works of art that have the stamp of 
individual genius. Things made by machinery cannot possi- 
bly acquire that finish and that individuality of expression that 
is the result of one man doing the whole work. But as a 
compensation, the conveniences of life are multiplied a hun- 
dred-fold. With small cost, the average man can command 
what in former times would have been deemed unattainable 
luxuries. 



BANKING SYSTEM 501 

752. Trade Unions. — The factory system has been fol- 
lowed indirectly by another very great change in the industrial 
word and that is combinations of labor trade unions. Even 
before the factory system, there had been combinations of 
wage earners, but with the new complex system of labor they 
increased rapidly. The main object of these unions is to 
obtain fair wages and reasonable hours of work. No doubt, 
much could be said regarding the rash acts, the unnecessary 
strikes, and the interference with the rights of non-union 
laborers. In the main, however, they have done much good. 
This is especially the case in some countries, where the affairs 
of the unions are regulated by a central committee of sagacious 
and experienced men. Hasty and unnecessary strikes are 
not so likely to occur and there is less opportunity for the 
display of local passion. It must also be admitted that owing 
to the unions, wages have been raised and that the laboring 
classes have acquired greater comfort and leisure. 

753. The Banking System. — Another consequence of the 
industrial revolution has been the perfecting of the banking 
system. Nothing can be done without capital, and it is by 
means of banks that capital is accumulated and readily dis- 
tributed where it is immediately required. The Bank af 
England, founded during the reign of William III, Is the 
most important establishment of its kind in the world. It is 
the place of deposit not only for individual customers, but 
also for the provincial banks of England and even for a great 
part of the European banks. The national banks of other 
countries hold their capital more evenly distributed and though 
the risk of insolvency is smaller the capital is not so easily 
and readily obtained. In America, the two chief classes of 
banks are the national banks and the state banks ; the chief 
difference between the two consisting in this, that the state 
banks cannot issue circulating notes. 



502 TYPICAL FEATURES OF THE XIX CENTURY 

The banking system plays a most important part in the 
industrial world. Not only is capital deposited and ready 
at hand, but it facilitates the exchange of goods and accom- 
panies every movement in manufacture and in trade. 

The material well-being of society has been benefited, not 
only by the industrial revolution, but also by the great strides 
that have been taken in works of philanthropy. 

754. The Care of its Poor. — In most countries, the poor 
are now taken care of in a wise and systematic way. Vaga- 
bondage and loafing are sternly repressed ; while every help 
is given to those who are poor through misfortune or acci- 
dent or old age. In some countries like New Zealand, there 
had already been started a system of caring for the aged and 
with conspicuous success. Even such difficult questions as 
finding work for the unemployed are receiving attention ; but 
in overcrowded places like London, the problem as yet pre- 
sents insuperable difficulties. Such expedients, however, as 
emigration and labor colonies tend to mitigate the evils that 
result from overcrowding and from too keen competition. 

755. Care of Criminals. — Even the criminal classes are 
now attracting the benevolent attention of society. The sum- 
mary executions and brutal methods in vogue some fifty 
years ago, which only drove to desperation and hardened 
the criminal, are done away with. There is now some just 
proportion between the crime and the offence. And not only 
is the prison regime calculated to reform the prisoner, but 
when the term of imprisonment is over, there are willing hands 
who will keep the ex-convict from his former bad surround- 
ings and put him in the way of earning an honest livelihood. 

756. Discoveries in Science and Medicine. — Much also 
might be said of the discoveries in science that have contribu- 



PROGRESS IN RELIGION 503 

ted to the health and longevity of man. Especially in biology 
and medicine, modern researches have been fraught with the 
most momentous results. The discovery of bacteria, as the 
causes of disease, has revolutionized the whole system of 
healing. Not only have such diseases as diphtheria, cancer, 
typhoid, and consumption become curable under the new 
methods, but by the antiseptic treatment the most difficult 
operations can be performed without danger of blood poison- 
ing. 

Another important advance in medical science was made by 
the discovery of anesthetics, such as chloroform and ether; 
not only has much pain been thereby saved, but many lives 
have been preserved that would otherwise have succumbed 
to the violence of the shock. 

757. Progress in Religion. — After a rapid survey of the 
industrial and material progress of the last century, one might 
be tempted to ask whether a like progress has been shown in 
the more important sphere of religion and morality. There is 
no doubt that keen competition and abundance of material com- 
fort are not very conducive to the austere practice of religion, 
and that the meditative lives and severe penances of the middle 
ages are rare. But every nation and every age has its own 
peculiar type of sanctity. And in our modern times, the 
spirit of philanthropy and charity and a zeal for the well 
being of the whole community are very conspicuous. At the 
same time, there is a great improvement among the broad 
masses of the community, greater enlightenment, a wider 
view, and above all. a greater power of self-restraint. This 
last quality is a special feature of the American democracy 
and is a most sure guarantee for a prosperous future. 

Also the spirit of toleration is everywhere dominant. The 
obstacles of violence and persecution are removed, and the 
truth is allowed to appeal directly to the minds and con- 
sciences of men. " The truth is great and will prevail." 



INDEXES 



INDEX TO CHURCH HISTORY 



Origin of the names Province and 

Diocese, 5. 
Persecution of Christians under 

Diocletian, 6, 7. 
Christian policy of Constantine, 7- 

9. 

Council of Nicea, 8, 9. 
Persecution of orthodox Christians 

by Vandals in Africa, 16. 
Repulse of the Huns by Leo I, ig. 
Persecution of orthodox Christians 

by Theodoric, 23. 
Effects of Clovis' conversion on the 

Church, 25, 26. 
Gregory the Great and Western 

Alonasticism, 32. 
.Mohammedans, 39, 49. 
Leonine Walls, 47. 
King Dagobert and the Church. 51. 
Conversion of the Germans, 52. 
Beginning of Temporal Pov^'er of 

the Pop^es, 53. 
Separation of Latin and Greek 

churches, 54. 
Coronation ol Charlemagne, 55. 
Church and State in Holy Roman 

Empire. 57. 
Ecclesiastical learning, 58. 
Conversion of England, 60. 
The Canons, 63. 
Benedictines, 64. 

The Church and Feudalism, 75, 76. 
Cluniac Reform, 78-81. 
Church and State in France, 84. 
Germany and Papal Elections, 96, 

102. 
Alliance between the Papacy and 

the Normans, 103. 
Reform in the method of Papal 

elections, T04. 
Investiture Contest, 105-110. 
Organization of church in Eng- 
land, III. 



Contest between Empire and Pa- 
pacy continued, 1 14-126. 
Cistercians, 114, 115. 
Carthusians, 116. 
The Canons, 116. 
Innocent HI, 121-125. 
Honorius HI and Frederick H, 

124-125. 
Henry II of England and the 

church, 127. 
Crusades, 136-144. 
Schools of Theology, 154. 
Canon 'Law, 153. 
Friars and Universities, 155. 
Franciscans. 157-160. 
Dominicans, 160-163. 
Scholasticism, 161. 
Albigenses, 169. 
Friction between Church and State 

in France in fsth Century, 176- 

^79. 
Clerical representation in English 

Parliament, 180. 
Joan of Arc, 187. 
John Huss and fourth Council of 

Constance, 196. 
William Wycliff. 198, 199. 
Renaissance and Relision. 208-210. 
Sacred Art during Renaissance, 215- 

22y. 
Savonarola, 244, 245. 
Popes of Renaissance Period, 246- 

250. 
Conciliar Movement. 246^24^. 
Inquisition in Spain, 254, 255. 
Julius II, 272. 

Leo X and Francis I concordat, 276. 
Reformation, 290-307. 
Catholic Reformation, 310-320. 
Ecclesiastical element in Revolt of 

Netherlands, 325. 
Religious element in 30 years War, 

332, 335, 339. 34^ 



5o8 



Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 347, 

348: 

Religious element in struggles be- 
tween the Stuart Kings and the 
English People, 356, 357^^ 

Religious Policy of Louis XIV, 369- 

371- 
Tendency of the Stuart Kings to 

the Catholic Church, 380, 381. 
Russian Church under Peter the 

Great, 406. 



INDEX TO CHURCH HISTORY 



Religious Causes of French Revolu- 
tion, 417, 418. 

Assignats and Civil Constitution of 
the Clergy, 423, 424. 

Religious Reforms of Napoleon, 438. 

Captivity of Pius VII, 443. 

Unification of Italy versus the 
Papacy, 457-463- 

Penal laws in Ireland and Catholic 
Emancipation, 465, 466. 



INDEX 



Aachen, 26, 58, 83, 58, 92. 

Abassides, 45. 

Abelard, Peter, 154. 

Abu Beker, 42. 

Aethelric, 60. 

Actius, 18, 24. 

Africa, 5, 261, 472. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of, 389, 

Alexander II of Russia, 492. 

Agincourt, battle of, 187, 191. 

Alaric, 15. 

Alberoni, 390. 

Albertus Magnus, 161. 

Albigenses, 122, 160. 

Albizzi, the, 242. 

Albrecht, I, 193. 

Albrecht II, 193. 

Alcuin, 58. 

Alemanni, 25. 

Alessandria, 119. 

Alexander IT, Pope, 80. 

Alexander III, 119. 

Alexander VII, 250. 

Alexandria, 43. 

Alexius, 143, 137, 142. 

Alfonso, 252. 

Alfred the Great, 69. 

Algebra, 48. 

Algiers, 286. 

Ali, 44. 

Alphonse of Castile, 192. 

Alsace, 454. 

Alva, Duke of, 325-326. 

Amadeus, 486. 

Amherst, 398. 

America, 262. 

Anastasius, 25. 

Anglo-Saxons, 60. 

Aniane, St. Benedict of, 78. 

Anjou, Ren6 of, 85. 

Anselm, 112, 131. 

Antioch, 42, 40, 138, 139. 

Antoninus, 6. 

Appanages, 170. 

Aquitaine, 84, 127, ibp, 86. 



i7i- 



Arabia, 38. 

Aragon, 253. 

Arbitration, 499. 

Armies, 261. 

Architecture, 58, 89, 171, 220. 

Arians, 14, 2^. 

Aristotle, 48. 

Aries, 66, loi, 284. 

Armada, Spanish, 329. 

Armagnacs, 187. 

Arnold of Brescia, 155. 

Arnulf, 87. 

Arthur of Brittany, 168. 

Artillery, 266. 

Aryans, 85, 127, 168. 

Assignats, 423. 

Athens, University of, 27, 29. 

Attila, 17. 

Ausburg, treaty of, 92, 298, 299. 

Augustus, Philip, 167, 168. 

Augusti, 5. 

Austria, 279, 487, 489. 

Australia, 472. 



B 

Balance of Power, 496. 

Banks, 501. 

Barleymont, 324. 

Barnabites, 316. 

Basel, Council of, 247, 

Bartholomew, St., Massacre of, 346. 

Bavaria, 192, 338. 

Bedford. Duke of, 187. 

Belgium, 481, 482. 

Benedict II, pope, 177. 

Benedictines, 64. 

Benevento, 32. 

Berengar, 93. 

Bergamo, 273. 

Berlin Congress, 493. 

Berlin Decrees, 451. 

Berthold of Mainz, 236. 

Besangon, 93. 

Bethlehem, 125. 

Bible, 291. 



509 



5IO INDEX 



Bismarck, io8. 

Black Prince, 185. 

Blois, Count of, 86. 

Boers, 76. 

Boethiiis, 22, 69. 

Bohemia, 192, 333. 

Bohemond, 138. 

Boleyn, Anne, 302. 

Bologna, University of, 153 ; Con- 
cordat of, 286. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon, 430, 432, 436, 
448. 

Boniface, VIII, pope, 152. 

Boniface, Count of Montferrat, 141. 

Book of Common Prayer, 380. 

Bordeaux, 186. 

Borgia, Caesar, 271. 

Borromeo, 316. 

Bossuet, 372. 

Bouvines, battle of, 176. 

Bracton (lawyer), 200. 

Bramante, 223. 

Brandenburg, 91, 192. 

Breitenfeld, 337. 

Bremen, 55. 

Brenner Pass, 94. 

Bretigny, treaty of, 186. 

Breviary, Roman, 312. 

Britain, 60. 

Brittany, 84, 85. 

Brescia, 273. 

Bruges, 85. 

Brunelleschi, 223. 

Bruno, St., 96, 116. 

Brunswick, 120. 

Buckingham, 355. 

Bundesrath, 452. 

Burgoyne, 433. 

Burgundy, 14, 83, 171, 181 ; Duchy 
of, 66, 86. 

Byzantine Art, 9, 31. 

Byzantium, 8. 



Caaba, 40. 

Cairo, 45. 

Calais, 190. 

Calcutta, 399. 

Calendar, Gregorian, 332. 

Caliphs, 45. 

Caliphate of the West, 45. 

Calixtus II, 109. 

Calonne, 418. 

Calvin, John, 200-301, 269, 370. 

Calvinism, 352, 369. 

Cambray, League of, 272, 274. 

Cambridge, 210. 



Campeggio, Cardinal, 302. 

Canada, 397, 470. 

Canals, 362, 397, 398. 

Canonical life, 64. 

Canons, 64, 116. 

Canossa, castle of, 108. 

Campo Formio, treaty of, 431, 437. 

Cardinals, 104-105. 

Carlists, 485-486. 

Capet, Hugh, 84-87. 

Capetian Dynasty, 165. 

Carlovingian Empire, 64, 83. 

Carnot, 428. 

Carthusians, 116. 

Castelar, 486. 

Cassiodorus, 22. 

Castile, 253. 

Castles, 75. 

Castor, 4. 

Catherine II, Czarina of Russia, 

408. 
Catharites, 169. 
Cavalry, y6. 
Cavour, 458. 
Ceylon, 447. 
Chalons, battle of, 17. 
Chalcondyles, 209. 
Champagne, 86. 
Charles Albert, 458. 
Charles Felix, 457. 
Charles V, Ger. Emp., 279, 287, 321. 
Charlemagne, 54, 55, 56, 59. 
Charles, Count of Anjou, 170. 
Charles I, King of England, 355, 

358; II, 360. 379, 380. 
Charles VI of Austria, 386. 
Charles V of France, 186; VI, 187; 

VII, 188, 229; VIII, 232, 269-270; 

IX, 346; XII, 407. 
Charles IV of Luxemburg, 193- 

194- 

Charles Martel, 46, 52. 

Charles XII of Sweden, 407. 

Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur- 
gundy, 231. 

Charles the Fat, 83. 

Chevalier, 229. 

Childeric, 53. 

Chlotilda, 25. 

Choiseul, Etienne F., 453. 

Christianity, 7. 

Christian iV of Denmark, 334. 

Christians, 6. 

Chrodegang of Metz, 63, 116. 

Church, 97. 

Cicero, 207. 

Cilicia, 28. 



INDEX 



511 



Cirtella, battle of, 104. 

Cisalpine Republic, 431. 

Cistercians, 114-115. 

Cistercian Wool, 115. 

Citeaux, 114. 

Civil Constitution of clergy in 
France, 423. 

Clairvaux, 115. 

Claudian, Emp., i. 

Clement II, pope, 103; V, 177; VII, 
246, 283. 

Clermont, council of, log. 

Clive, Robert, Lord, Conquest of 
India, 399. 400. 

Clovis, 24-26. 

Cluniac Reform, 78-81. 

Cluny, 81, Customs of, 78. 

Cnut the Great. 89. 
-Code Napoleon, 438. 

Cceur Jaques, 229. 

Coke, 343. 

Colbert, Jean B., 306. 

Colet, John, 210. 

Coligny, Admiral, 346. 

Cologne, 93, loi, 119,- 149, 192. 

Colonies, 361, 396-401, 470-474. 

Colonies, North American, govern- 
ment of, 432. 

Columbus. Christopher, 262. 

Committee of Public Safety, 428. 

Conciliar Movement, 246. 

Concordat of Worms, 109. 

Conrad I, of Germanv, 88; II, 98; 
III, 139. 

Consolations of Philosophy, 69. 

Constance, 196; treaty of, 119. 

Constantine the Great, 7. 

Constantinople, 8, 2y, 209. 

Conventuals, 159. 

^Topts, 147, 151. 

Cordova, 45, 97 ; University, 96 : 

Corporation Act, 380. 

Cortez, Spanish, 2=;4, 323. 

Courtrai, battle of, 347. 

Cosel, battle of, 335. 

Councils of Constance, 196, 246. 

Councils, provincial, 247. 

Courts, 173, 180. 

Cranmer, .Archbishop, 205. 

Crecy, battle of, 184, 185, 191. 

Crescentius, 95. 

Crespy, 281, 286. 

Crimean War, 459, 491. 

Cromwell, Oliver, 358-360; Rich- 
ard, 360; Thomas, 293-303. 

Crozier, 106, 109. 



Crusades, 134, 136, 140-144. 

Cyprus. 144, 473- 

Customs Union in Germany, 450. 

D 

Dagobert, 51, 52. 

Dandolo, 141. 

Danelagh, 69. 

Danes, 67, 69, 83, 87-88. ' ' 

Dante, 174, 209, 212, 213. 

Danton, 427. 

Daun, General, 395. 

Declaration of Independence, 433. 

Declaration of Indulgence, 381. 

Demetrius Chalcondyles, 209. 

Denmark, 149, 334. 

Diaz, Bartholomew, 262. 

Dijon, 114. 

Diocletian, 5-7. 

Diplomacy, 263, 264. 

Directory, 430. 

Dominican.s, 160-162. 

Donatello, 225. 

Don Carlos, 485. 

Donnauworth, 2:^2. 

Doria, Admiral, 287. 

Dover, Treaty of, 379. 

Dunstan, Archbishop, 81. 

Durham, Lord, 430. 



Ealdred, Archbishop, no. 

East Anglia, 89. 

East India Company, 471. 

Eberhard, 235. 

Ecke, Dr., 296. 

Edessa, 139. 

Edgar, king, 81. 

Educational reform, 467. 

Edward, the Confessor, 99, 180. 

Edward I of England, 180-183; II. 

197; III, 184, 197; IV, 203; VI, 

306. 
Edwin, 60. 
Egbert, 60. 
Egmont, Count, 324. 
Egypt, 5, 473- 
Elias of Cortona, 159. 
Elinor of Aquitaine, 127, 168. 
Elizabeth, queen of Eng., 306. 
Elizabeth of Russia, 396. 
Emancipation, Catholic, 466. 
Endicott, John, 361. 
England, 357. v 
Erasmus, 210. 



;i2 



INDEX 



Este, Elizabeth, 208. 
Ethelbert, 35. 
Eugenius, IV, pope, 248. 



Factories, 500. 

Farnese, 327. 

Fatimites, 45. 

Fealty. 73. 

Ferdinand the Catholic, 236. 

Ferdinand of Naples, 253. 

Ferdinand VII of Spain, 483. 

Ferrara, 53. 

Feudalism, 72, 78, 82, 100, 180. 

Fisher, Bishop, 210. 

Flanders, 85. 184, 354. 

Fleury, Cardinal, 390. 

Flodden field, 277. 

Florence, 209, 238, 241-245, 243, 

269. 
Fontenoy, battle of, 392. 
Fornovo, battle of, 271. 
Fortescue, 220. 
Fouquet, 364. 
France, 83, 165, 182, 476. 
Francis I of France, 275-276 ; II, 

346. 
Franciscans, 88, 157, 159. 
Franco-German \\ ar, 479. 
Franconia, 24, 192. 
Frankfort. 24: treaty of, 454. 
Frankish Empire, 26. 
Franks, 24. 
Free Town, 146. 
Free Trade, 415. 
Frederick Barbarossa, 1 17-120. 
Frederick I, Ger. Emp., 117; II, 

122, 127, 143; III. 234. 
Frederick, Elector Pal., 333. 
Friars, 122, 155, 162. 
Fulk of Neuilly. 141. 
Frederick II of Prussia, 394-401. 

G 
Garibaldi, 400. 
Gascony, 87, 183, 184. 
Gaul, 5. 

Geneva, 299-301. 
Genseric, 16. 
Genoa, 145. 
Geoffrey, 141. 

George I of Eng., 391 ; III, 432. 
Gerbert, 96. 

Germans, 2. 10, 12, 14, 73. 
German diet, 233. 
German Confederations, 452. 
Germany, 83. 



Gero, 95. 

Gerson, 291. 

Ghent, 85. 

Ghibellines, I18. 

Girondists, 425. 

Godfrey of Bouillon, 136. 

Golden Bull, 194. 

Godwin, Earl, 98, 99. 

Goths, 12. 

Granada, 253. 

Grand Remonstrance. 357. 

Grand Alliance, 378. 

Granson, battle of, 232. 

Granvella, Cardinal, 324. 

Gratian, 152. 

Great Charter, 131. 

Greece, 15, 490. 

Greek, study of, 207, 209, 210. 

Greenland, 68. 

Gregory the Great, 32, 36 ; V, 96 ; 

VII, 106, 109; IX, 159; XI, 246. 
Gregory XIII, 312. 
Grey Friars, 159. 
Grocvn, 210. 
Guelf, 118. 
Guibert, Archbishop of Ravenna, 

108. 
Guienne, 87, 183. 
Guiscard, Robert, 108. 
Gustavus Adolphus, 336, 337. 



H 

Hadrian, 6. 

Halberstadt, ^^S- 

Halle University, 385. 

Hamburg. 9^;. 149. 

Hampton Court. 356. 

Hanseatic League, 149. 

Hapsburg, house of, 192. 

Harfleur, 187. 

Harold II, 99. 

Haroun-al-Raschid. 45. 

Hastings, battle of, no. 

Hegira, 39. 

Henrietta, 342. 

Henrv III of England. 

Henry I of Germany, 88; II. 98, 

127; HI, 101-104; IV, 106; V, 

109; VI, 120. 
Henry III of En<^land. 
Henry V of England, 187, 201. 
Henry IV of France. 348. 
Henry the Fowler, 88, 91. 
Henry the Lion, 120, 134. 
Heraldry, 146. 
Holy Land, 43, 137. 



INDEX 



513 



Holy Roman Empire, 25, 55. 

Homage, 273. 

Hohenstaufen, 120. 

Hohenlinden, battle of, 437. 

Hohenzollern, 192. 

Honorius H, pope, 169; HI, 124. 

Horn. Count, 324. 

Hospitallers, 124. 

Hugh Capet, 84. 

Hugh, Count of Vermandois, 324. 

Hugh du Puiset. 166. 

Huguenots, 301. 

Hundred Years' War, 193, 204. 

Hungarians, 67. 

Huns, 17, 18. 

Huss, John, 196. 

I 

Iceland, 68. 

Ignatius Loyola, 313. 

Illyria, 5. 

Images. 318. 

Imperial Succession, 52, 79. 

India. 43, 398, 400, 471. 

Indulgences, 294, 318. 

Innocent III, pope, 121, 123, 169, 

250; VIII, pope, 250. 
Inquisition, 254-255. 
Institutes of Justinian, 30. 
International Congress, 483. 
Investiture Question, loi, 113, 176. 
Ionian Islands, 447. 
Ireland, 465. 
Irnerius, 153. 
Isaac Angelus, 141. 
Isabella of Brienne, 125 
Istria, 273. 
Italy, 83, 141. 456. 
Ivan I, 404. 

J 

Jacobins, 415. 

Jamaica, 359, 397. 

James I, of England. 312; II, 381. 

James V, of Scotland, 287. 

Jean du Vergier, 370. 

Jerusalem, 43, 125, 138. 

Jesuits, 313. 

Joan of Arc, 187, 188. 

Joanna, Queen, 236. 

John, Don, of Austria, 327. 

John of Cappadocia, 28. 

John of England, 131. 

John XII, pope; XXII, pope, 246. 

Julian, Count, 43. 

Julius II, pope, 271, 274; III, pope, 

:i77- 

Jourdan, 428. 



Jury system, 128. 
Jus Gentium, 30. 
Justin, 23. 
Justinian, 9, 26, 46 150. 

K 
Kadijah, 39. 

Katharine of Aragon, 302. 
Kent, 35. 

Knighthood, Schools of, 151. 
Knights' War, 297. 
Kolin, 395. 
Koran, 39. 

L 

Labat, 418. 

Laissez faire doctrine, 415. 

Lan franc, 131. 

Langton, Archbishop, 131. 

Langue d'oc, 86. 

Langue d'oui, 86. 

Lascares, John, 243. 

Lateran Council, 122, 128. 

Latin hymns, 58. 

Latin literature, 36. 

Laud, William, 357. 

Laurentian Library, 243. 

Lautrec, General, 281, 283. 

La Vendee, 428. 

Lawrence, Sir Henry, 471. 

Legislative Assembly, 425. 

Legnano, 119. 

Leipsic, 444. 

Le Mans, 86. 

Leo, popes by that name, I, 19; 

III, 55; IV, 47; IX, 103, 104. 

108; X, 275. 
Leonine city, 47. 
Lepanto, battle of, 311. 
Leuthen, battle of, 395. 
Libraries, 405. 
Linacre, 210. 
Livonia. 336, 408. 
Lollardy, 197, 199. 
Lombard league, 119. 
Lombards, 32, 35. 
London. 81, no. 
London company, 360. 
Lorenzo the Magnificent, 209. 
Lorraine, 83, 454, 27^. 
Lothaire, 65, 93. 
Louis the Pious, 6^,. 
Louis VI. 166. 
Louis, kings of France, VT, 166- 

167; VII, 139; Vin, 169: IX, 

172-174: XII, 271; XIII, 350; 

XIV, 364-383. 



514 

Louis, Count of Bloise, 141. 

Louis, the Child, 87. 

Louis Philippe, 477. 

Louis Napoleon, 478- 

Louvois, 368. 

Louvre, 368. 

Lower Lorraine, 66. 

Liibeck, 149. 

Lupus, bishop, 18. 

Luther, Martin, 293-297. 

Lutzen, 338. 

Luxemburg, duchy of. 194. 354. 

Lydia, 28. 

M 
Machiavelli, 303. 
Madrid, 48; treaty of, 282. 
Magdeburg, 93, 94. 
Magenta, battle of, 460. 
Maine, 85, 129, 168. 
Mainz, 58, 93. 192, 236. 
Malplaquet, battle of, 378. 
Malta, 144, 473, 447- 
Mantua, 18. 
Marat, 427. 

Marengo, battle of, 436, 437. 
Margaret of Parma, 324. 
Maria Theresa of Austria, 354, 373, 

387, 389. 
Marie Antoinette, 429. 
Marignano, battle of, 279. 
Marius, 13. 
Markgrafs, 57. 

Marlborough, Duke of, 378-379- 
Mars, 3. 

Marseilles, city, 282, 284. 349. 
Marston Moor, battle of, 358. 
Martin V, pope, 246. 
Mary of Burgundy, 236-237. 
Mary, 305. 

Mary, queen of Scots, 306, 328. 
Massachusetts, 361. 
Mathias, Emperor, 333. 
Matilda, daughter of Henry I. 112. 
Matilda, Countess, 107, 108. 152. 
Maximilian, Emperor, 235, 237, 

279, 334- 
Mayors of the palace, 52. 
Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal, 334. 364- 
Mazzini, 457. 
Mecca, 39. 
Mechlin, 483. 
Medici family, 242-244. 
Medicine-, 502. 
Medina, 39. 

Melbourne, 472. '■ 

Mercia, kingdom of, 60, 88. 



INDEX 



Mercury. 4. 
Merovic, 24. 

Merovingian dynasty, 26. 
INIetz, 298. 

Michael Angelo, 223-226. 
Milan, 238, 239, 270, 271, 281. 
Minden, 396. 

Milan, archbishop of, 18, 118. 
Mirabeau, Count, 424. 
Missi dominici, 92. 
Modern History, 2C0. 
Mohammed, 39-42. 
Mohammedan Culture, 47. 
Mohammedan Religion, 41. 
Monasticism, 32, 72, 82. 
Monk, General, 360. 
Monte I'Lery, 230. 
Montenegro, ^03. 
Montesquieu, 413. 
Morat, battle of, 232. 
Moravia, 194. 

More, Sir Thomas, 210, 304. 
Moreau, General, 430. 
Morgarten, battle of. 196. 
Morosini, T. 142. 
Mosque of Omar, 43. 
Mountain, the, 427. 
Munster, 55. 
Murat, General, 442. 
Mutiny Act, 382. 

N 

Nancy. 232. 

Nantz, Edict of, 348. 

Napier, Sir Charles, 471. 

Naples, 28, 238, 251-253, 270, 279. 

Napoleon Bonaparte, 430; HI, 454. 

Napoleon Code, 438. 

Napoleonic Wars, 448. 

Narbonne, 87. 

Narses, 27. 

Naseby, battle of, 358. 

Natal, 473. 

National Assembly, 420. 

National guard of Paris, 421. 

Navarre, 83, 280. 

Nazareth, 125. 

Necker, 415, 419. 

Nero, 4. 

Netherlands, 236. 279, 321, 322, 329, 

330. . 
Neustria, 26, 52. 
Neuville, 418. 
New World, 279. 
Nicsea, 138; council of, 8. 
Nice, 285. 



INDEX 



515 



Nicene Creed, 14. 

Nicholas I, Czar, 490, 492: II, 493. 

Nicholas, pope, II, 104; V, 248. 

Nile, battle of, 431. 

Nobles in France, 230. 

Nobles, flight of, 424. 

Norbert, St., 117, 155. 

Nordlinger, battle of, 339. 

Normans, 67, 85 ; in Italy, 103-104. 

Normandy, 85, 127, 187, 188. 

North-German Confederation, 453. 

Northmen, 68, 67. 

Northumberland, 88, 89. 

Northumbria, 60. 

Notre Dame Cathedral, 167. 

Novara, battle of, 458. 

Nova Scotia, 30. 

Norway, 67. 

Nuremburg, 388. 

Nymeguen, 58. 

Nystadt, treaty of, 407. 

O 

Ockham, William, 161. 

O'Connell, Daniel, 466. 

Odoacer, 16, 21. 

Odo, St., 80. 

Offa, 56, 60. 

Omar, 43, 44. 

Ommiades, 45. 

Oratorians, 316. 

Ordeal, 129. 

Orsini, 118. 

Orthez, 443. 

Osnabriick, 55. 

Ostrogoths, 14, 17, 28. 

Oswald, 60. 

Oswi, 60. 

Othman, 44. 

Otto I, Ger. Emp., 91, 94; II, 94; 

III, 96. 
Otto of Brunswick, 122. 
Otto of Wittelsbach, 120. 
Ottocar of Bohemia, 193. 
Oudinard, battle of, 378. 
Ovid, 207. 



Padua, 237. 

Painting, Italian Schools of, 215- 

219. 
Palatinate, 192; War of, 375, 
Palatium, 57. 
Pampeluna, 281, 
Pandecta, 30. 
P.-ipnl State*. 53, 245. 



Paraguay, 315. 

Paris, treaty of, 396; 2d treaty of, 

400-401 ; 4th treaty, 492. 
Paris, 83, 153, 161, 230; University 

of, 152-153- 
Parliament of, 1295, 180; English, 

342. 
Parliamentary reform in England, 

467; in France, 414. 
Parsees, 43. 

Party government in England, 383. 
Pascal, Pope, 109. 
Patarini, 169. 
Patricius, 16. 
I'aulinus, 35. 
Paul the Deacon, 58. 
Paul III, pope, 249; IV, 311. 
Pavia, 18, 32. 
Peasants' revolt, England, 191-198; 

Germany, 297. 
Pelagius, Pope, 34. 
Penal laws in Ireland, 466-467. 
Pen da, 60. 

Peninsular War, 442. 
Persians, 43. 
Perugino, 217. 
Peter Abelard, 154. 
Peter of Pisa, 58. 
Peter the Great, 403 ; III, 396. 
Peter the Lombard, 155. 
Peter the Venerable, 80. 
Petition of Right, 355. 
Petrarch, 212. 
Philip Augustus, 167. 
Philip, Duke of Anjou, 377. 
Philip II of France, 172, 321, 330; 

III, 175; IV, 177. 
Philip II of Spain, 321-329. 
Philip the Good, 190. 
Philip of Suabia, 122. 
Philo, 43. 

Piacenza. council of, 136. 
Pietro Delia Francesca, 216. 
Pilgrimage of Grace, 304. 
Pippin II, 52, 53. 
Pisa, 14s, 222; council of. 246. 
Pisani, 225. 
Pitt the Younger, 433. 
Pius, popes of that name, II, 249; 

III, 249; V, 311, 312; VII, 443; 

IX, 457-458. 

Plantagenet, 201. 
Poitiers, 184. 
Poitou, 84, 87, 
Poland, 97, 408-410, 
Poor laws, 468, 
Pole, Cardinal, 305, 



.^16 



LWDEX 



Pollentia, battle of, 15. 
Ponierania, 385-39-. 446- 
Pondicherry. 399- 
Port Arthur. 408. 
Portugal, 253. 48d. 
Potsdam Guards, 385. 
Poynings Act, 466. 
Pragmatic Sanction, s^. 
Prague, 104. 
PreiFectures. 5. 
Presbyterians, 301. 
Pressburg. treaty of, 440. 
Printing, 201. 
Privy Council, 180. 
Protestants, 301. 
Provence, 83, 171, 371. 
Pultowa. battle of, 407 
Purgatory. 3x8. 
Puritans, 30I-357- 
Pyrenees, treaty of. 354. 

Q 
Quadruple Alliance, 391. 
Quebec, battle of. 398. 
Quesnel, 370. 



Raleigh. Sir W., 36a 
Ramadan. 41. 
Ramillies. battle of. H^y^. 
Raphael, 219. 

Ravenna. 28. 53. Q6-Q7. 108. 274. 
Raymond of Provence. 170. 
Raymond of Toulouse. 138. 169. 
Reformation. Catholic, 310-319; 

Protestant. 289-3OQ. 
Reign of Terror. 128. 
Religious Orders, 313. 
Remigius, St.. 25. 
Renaissance, 206-228. 
Requesens. 326. 
Rheims, 25, 86. 
Richard, English kings. I, 131 ; II, 

197. 
Richard, Duke of Cornwall, 192. 
Richelieu. 340. 
Robbia Lucca della. 226. 
Robert of Molcme. 114. 
Robert of Normandy, 136. 
Roderick. 44. 
Rohan. Cardinal, 418. 
Romanoff. Michael, 403. 
Roman Empire. 1-5. 
Roman army. 3. 
Roman education, 3. 
Roman Senate, 9. 



Rome, 283. 

Roses, Wars of, 191, 201. 

Rouen, 188. 

Rudolph I, 193. 

Rousseau, 413. 

Russia, 403-410. 444. 490. 

Russo-Turkish War, 492. 

Ryswick, Treat}- of. S7^. 



St. Albans. 202. 

St. Alcuin, 60. 

St. Anselm, 131. 

St. Augustine. 15, 34, 116. 

St. Bartholomew, Massacre of, 346 

St. Benedict, 33-64. 

St. Benedict of Aniane, 64. 

St. Bernard. 114. 155. 

St. Boniface. 35. 

St. Cyprien. 2S. 

St. Dominic. 160. 

St. Francis. 157. 315; de Sales, 316. 

St. Genevieve. 424. 

St. Helena. t,qs. 

St. John. Knights of. 264. 

St. Clark's Church, 9; Convent, 216. 

St. Norbert. ISS- 

St. Odo, 80. 

St. Peter. 19. 

St. Petersburg, 406. 

St. Philip Neri, 316. 

St. Remigius. 25. 

Salamanca. 442. 

Salerno. 153. 

Salian Emperors, loi. 

Salzburg. 93. 

San Germano. treaty of, 125. 

San Sebastian. 443. 

Saracens. 36, 137. 

Sardinia. 390. 

Savonarola. 244. 269. 

Savoy. 284. 

Saxony. 192. 

Scandinavians, 12. 

Schism, Great. 248. 

Schleswig-Hol stein, 452. 

Schmalkalde League of, 298. 

Schola Palatina, 58. 

Scholasticism. 161. 

Schwyz. 195. 

Scotland. 183. 

Scott. Michael. 124. 

Sculpture. 225-228. 

Sedan, battle of, 454. 

Seneca. 207. 

Selling, W., 210. 

Seven Years' War, 394. 



INDEX 



SI7 



Sforza Ludovico, 269; Francesco, 

239- 

Shakespeare, William, 211, 214. 

Shetland, 25, 67. 

Sicily, 251, 279- 

Sickingen, Franz von, 297. 

Sieyes, Abbe, 420. 

Silesia, 194; Second War of, 389. 

Simon dc Alontfort, 141, 169, 179. 

Six Articles, 304, 250, 343. 

Sixtiis IV, pope, 343; V, 313. 

Slavs, 67, 95. 

Sluys, battle of, 184. 

Smith, Adam, 415. 

Soissons, 25. 

Solferino, battle of, 460. 

Sorel, Agnes, 229. 

South Sea Bubble, 391. 

Spain, 253, 279. 

Spanish Succession, War of, T,yy. 

Spenser, 211, 214. 

Spires, Edict of, 298. 

Spoleto, 2)2. 

Star chamber, 256. 

States General of France, 420. 

Steelyard, 149. 

Stephen, 62,; Count of Blois, 136; 

pope, 63. 
Stephen, Harding St., 115. 
Stilicho, 15. 
Styria, 120. 

Suabia, 192; league, 235. 
Suevi, 215. 
Suger, 168. 
Sully, Duke of, 349. 
Surrey, 214. 
Sutri, Synod of, 112. 
Switzerland, 67. 
Sydney, 472. 

Sylvester II, pope, 84, 96. 
Syagrius, 25. 
Symmachus, 2t,. 
Syria, 5. 42, 139- 



Tacitus, 13. 

Taginffi, battle of, 28. 

Talleyrand, 418, 453. 

Tancred, 130, 136. 

Taxation laws, 416. 

Templars, 144. 

Test Act, 380. 

Teutonic Knights, 234 ; order, 195. 

Tewkesbury, battle of, 202. 

Theatines, 315. 

Theobald, 141. 



Theodebunda, 35. 

Theodora, 27. 

Theodoric, 17, 21. 

Thcraunne, 277. 

Theophano, 94. 

Third Estate, 150, 175. 

Thirty Years War, 331-345. 

Thomas a Becket, St., 128. 

Thomas Aquinas, St., 161. 

''"illy. 335- 

Tilsit, 441. 

Titian, 219. 

Tories, 383. 

Toul, 298. 

Toulouse, 87. 

Tourraine, 2y7. 

Tournament, 75. 

Tours, battle of, 46. 

Towns, 149. 

Trade guilds, 147. 

Towton, battle of, 202. 

Trade routes, change in, 264, 265. 

Trafalgar, 140. 

Treaty of Union, 327. 

Trent, council of, 317. 

Treves, 5. 

I richinopoli, 399. 

Trier, 93, 192. 

Triple Alliance, 391. 

Troyes, 18, 86; treaty of, 187. 

Tudor dynasty, 256. 

Turgot, 415, 418. 

Turkestan, 46. 

Turks, 46, 209, 311. 

Tyrconnel, Earl of, 381. 

Tyrol, 237- 

U 

Ugolino, Cardinal, 159. 

Uniformity Act, 380. 

United Provinces, 227. 

Universities, 151, 152, 210, 212, 469. 

Lnterwalden, 195. 

Upper Lorraine, 66. 

Urban II, pope, 156; IV, 246 

Uri, 195. 

Utrecht, 379. 391. 

Utrecht, treaty of, 379. 



Vandals, 12, 15, 16, 27-28 
Vasco da Gama, 262. 
Vassalage, 7:3. 
Vatican, 47, 248. 
Vauban, 368. 
Venerable Bede, 60. 



5i« 



INDEX 



Venice, 95, 237, 239, 271. 

Vercellae, battles of, 13. 

Verden, 334. 

Verdun, 55, 298 ; treaty of, 65. 

Verona, battle of, 17. 

Vespucius Americo, 262. 

Victor Emmanuel, 457. 

Vienna, 193, 387 ; Congress of, 445- 

446. 
Vighus, 324. 
Villafranca, 460. 
Vinci Leonardi da, 218. 
Virgil, 207, 208. 
Visconti, Galiazzo, 239. 
Visigoths, 13. 14. 15. 35. 43- 
Vittoria, battle of, 442. 
Vivarini Antonio, Bartholomew, 

218. 
Voltaire, 408, 413. 

W 
Wakefield, battle of, 202. 
Wallenstein, 335, 338. 
Walpole, R., 391, 392. 
War, Art of, 265. 
War of the Knights, 297. 
Warsaw, 446. 
Warwick, Earl of, 305. 
Waterloo, 445. 
Wends, 95. 
Wenzel, Emp., 194. 
Wessex, 56, 60, 69, 88, 89. 



Westphalia, treaty of, 340. 

White Hills, battle of, m. 

Whigs, 383; party, 392. 

William I of England — ; III, 381. 

William I, Emp. Ger., 451. 

William, Duke of Aquitaine, 78. 

William, Duke of Newberg, 332. 

William of Orange, 324. 

Willibroad, St., 52. 

Winthrop, John, 361. 

Wittenberg, 294. 

Wittikind, 54. » 

Wolfe, General, 398. 

Wolsey, Cardinal, 277, 287, 302. 

Worms, concordat of, 109, 119, 176. 

Wulstan, St., no. 

Wyatt, 214. 

Wycliff, 196, 198, 199, 247. 

X 

Xavier, Francis St., 315. 
Ximenes, Cardinal, 255. 



Yorktown, battle of, 433. 



Zeres, battle of, 44. 
Zorndorf, battle of, 396. 
Zoroastrianism, 43. 



W 98 

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